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"The first farmer was the first man, and all historic 
nobility rests on possession and use of land." 

— Emerson. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

EDITED BY 

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY 

COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE; AUTHOR OF 

PRODUCTIVE FARMING, ETC. 



PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY 

By WALTER C. COFFEY 

PROFESSOR OF SHEEP HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS. Ph.D. 



SECOND EDITION REVISED 

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g6 illustrations. xiii -]-j6j pages. $1.75 net. 

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LippiNCOTT's Farm Manuals 

EDITED BY K. C. DAWIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 



PRODUCTIVE SHEEP 
HUSBANDRY 



BY 

WALTER C. COFFEY 

PROFESSOR OF SHEEP IIHSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 



" If vain our toil. 
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." 

Pope — Essay on Man 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






6<,>- 



COPYRIGHT, I918, BY J. B. I.IPPINCOTT COMPANY 



Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



DEC-7f9l8 

©Cl.i'5()S470 



DEDICATED TO 

THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER 
WHO LOVED SHEEP 



PREFACE 

All indications at the present time point to the beginning of a- 
new period in the sheep industry of tlie United States. For the first 
time in our history we are attempting to give attention to the whole 
problem of mutton and wool production. We are awakening as 
never before to the fact that successful flock husbandry is based 
upon a careful consideration and attention to breeding, feeding, 
shepherding, and marketing. As a result, farm flocks are emerg- 
ing from the depraved stage of scavengers, and bands of sheep on 
western ranges no longer have " to take pot luck "' on the natural 
feed of the range. 

The sheepman now realizes that " the march towards the setting 
sun " in search of new and cheap range is over, and that various 
phases of agriculture are demanding and receiving recognition m 
regions which he once regarded as solely his own. He also realizes 
that land values have advanced and the cost of operation increased 
to the point where the haphazard and wasteful methods once prac- 
ticed in handling sheep can no longer be depended upon to yield 
profits. 

All of these changes presage a better and more successful sheep 
husbandry, and this book is offered with the liope that it will be of 
use both to the student and to the sheep raiser in com])rchending the 
place wliich sheep justly deserve in our agriculture and the methods 
of handling which will result in permanent occupancy of this place. 

The author fully realizes that this volume is not a complete 
treatise on sheep husbandry. He also realizes how unfortunate it 
would be for sheepmen generally to attempt to apply without any 
modification whatever all of the suggestions this book contains ; for 
no absolute rule can be laid down for each and every practice in 
flock husbandry. 

To my various friends engaged in sheep raising, most grateful 
acknowledgment is due for the encouragement and help they have 
given me in preparing this volume, and especially do I feel indebted 
to my colleague, Prof. J. A. Detlefsen, for his helpful suggestions on 

vii 



viii PREFACE 

the discussion pertaining to sheep breeding, and to my assistants, 
Mr. Claude Harper and Mr. E. K. Augustus, who have rendered me 
most valuable assistance in various ways. I also wish to express my 
very great appreciation of suggestions given by Miss Anna Cushman 
Glover, Secretary of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, 
and by my brother. Professor J. S. Coffey, on the arrangement of 
the material for this book. 

Walter C. Coffey. 

August, 1918. 



CONTENTS 



PART I— HISTORY OF SHEEP RAISING AND OF SHEEP BREEDING 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Development OF Sheep Raising IN Various Countries 3 
II. Present Types of Sheep Raising in Leading Sheep 

Countries 20 

III. Problems in the Improvement of Sheep 27 

IV. Methods of Improvement 37 

PART II— STRUCTURE AND JUDGING 

V. Structure of the Sheep 45 

VI. The Nature of Sheep 59 

VII. Types 70 

VIII. Judging Sheep 82 

PART III— BREEDS 

IX. The Mutton Breeds 99 

X. The Southdown 102 

XI. The Shropshire 110 

XII. The Hampshire 122 

XIII. The Oxford Down 132 

XIV. The Suffolk 137 

XV. The Dorset Horn 140 

XVI. The Cheviot 145 

XVII. The Leicester 150 

XVIII. The Cotswold 156 

XIX. The Lincoln 161 

XX. The Romney Marsh 164 

XXI. British Breeds Not Widely Distributed in the United 

States 168 

XXII. The Corriedale 180 

XXIII. The American Tunis 184 

XXIV. Breeds op the Wool Type 188 

XXV. The American Merino 190 

XXVI. The Delaine Merino 200 

XXVII. The Rambouillet 203 

XXVIII. The Karakul (A Fur-Bearing Breed) 212 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

PART IV— THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK 

XXIX. Establishing the Commerical Farm Flock 219 

XXX. The Breeding Season 230 

XXXI. Care of Ewes During Pregnancy 236 

XXXII. The Lambing Period 246 

XXXIII. Growing the Lamb 267 

XXXIV. Summer Management 291 

XXXV. The Wool Crop 314 

PART V— SHEEP FEEDING 

XXXVI. History op Sheep Feeding in the United States 335 

XXXVII. Market Classes of Sheep 340 

XXXVIII. General Considerations in Sheep and Lamb Feeding. . 355 
XXXIX. Some Important Factors Affecting the Rate and 

Economy of Gain 369 

XL. Feeding Sheep and Lambs in the Field Through a Part 

or All of the Feeding Period 387 

PART VI— SHEEP MANAGEMENT ON THE RANGES IN THE 
WESTERN STATES 

XLI. Nature of the Range and of the Sheep 393 

XLII. Management of Sheep on Ranges in the West 402 

XLIII. Significant Changes in Range Conditions during the 

Past Twenty-five Years 426 

PART VII— MISCELLANEOUS 

- XLIV. Buildings and Equipment for Farm Flocks 435 

XLV. Preparing Mutton on the Farm 449 

Index 461 



PART I 

HISTORY OF SHEEP RAISING AND 
SHEEP BREEDING 



PRODUCTIVE SHEEP 
HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER I 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING IN 
VARIOUS COUNTRIES 

Early Domestication and Importance. — It is thought that 
sheep were first domesticated in Asia, prohahly in Turkestan. There 
is evidence that they may have heen under domestication in Europe 
in prehistoric times, for the bones of sheep have been found in caves 
and lake dwellings, where the primitive people of that continent 
lived. We can only surmise that primitive man used the skins for 
raiment and shelter, and the meat and milk for food. 

As man advanced in civilization and became more settled in his 
habits, his principal wealth often consisted of flocks and herds. The 
Old Testament contains many passages which refer to the pastoral 
occupation of sheep herding. Rome developed skill in handling her 
flocks, and sheep abounded in Spain prior to the ( 'hristian era. 

The development of sheep raising as it concerns those now in- 
terested in the production of mutton and wool centered in England 
and in Spain. Before the year 1000 lx)th of these countries attached 
great importance to their flocks, and by the year 1500 they were 
recognized as the greatest sheep countries of the world. Although 
their wools were considerably imlike, they were regarded as com- 
petitors for several liundred years on the great wool markets of 
Flanders. 

Sheep Raising in Spain, — Spain, at a very early period, de- 
veloped the ]\Ieriuo, a type of sheep which produced wool of 
unusually fine fiber, suitable for making such fine, soft fabrics as 
broadcloth (Fig. 1), This wool met with so large a demand 
and was so fertile a source of revenue, that the most powerful 
classes, the nobility and the clergy, engaged in sheep husbandry. 
They collected great flocks for which they secured almost un- 

3 



4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 

limited privileges. Carefully tended by shepherds of long exper- 
ience, these flocks were travelled from the southern to the north- 
ern part of the kingdom and back again each year in order to 
secure the best grazing and the most favorable climatic conditions 
for the sheep (Fig. 2). Certain laws of the kingdom stipulated 
that the ovrners of large flocks should be allowed a path 90 paces in 
width for their sheep through enclosed lands. The use of this 
privilege often brought hardships upon tlie peasants, who often com- 
plained of having their crops and vineyards devastated. 




Fig. 1. — Old type of Spanish Merino. These old sheep had long necks, high shoulders and 
were comparatively free from wrinkles. 

The production of sheep and of wool of a type unlike that of any 
other country became so important in Spain that the owners of 
flocks, being very few in number, easily established a monopoly which 
they maintained for many years. To alloAv a sheep to leave Spain 
alive was a crime punishable by death. The king was the only one 
exempted under this law. Sheep owners reinforced statute with 
argument, contending that in any other country their sheep would 
deteriorate in quality of fleece because of different soil, climate, and 
vegetation, and also because of inefficient shepherding. But later 
events proved them wrong in their contention. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MERINOS IN SPAIN 5 

Spain's Monopoly Broken. — There came a time when Spam's 
wool monopoly was broken and her sheep industry went into a 
period of decadence. Early in the nineteenth century Napoleon 
invaded Spain and overthrew the government. In connection with 
tliis conquest he seized large numbers of Merino sheep and sihipped 
them to other countries where they added new chapters to the history 
of sheep raising. A few years later Spain tried hard to regain her 




Fig, 2. — The heavy dark lines and the lighter double lines indicate the ancient routes 
over which travelling flocks were driven in iSpain. The black areas indicate the pastures 
on which these sheep were grazed. (From "Annales de Geographic," 1910.) 



former place as a great sheep country, but Napoleon's act really 
marked the beginning of her steady decline as a producer of 
Merinos. 

Characteristics of Merinos in Spain. — Mention should be 
made of three characteristics of Merino sheep in Spain that have 
had an important influence upon their subsequent history: first, 
the production of very fine wool ; second, the hardiness of the mature 



6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 

sheep and their ability to travel ; third, the disposition to stay close 
together when feeding, resting, or travelling. 

Stationary Flocks. — Spain also had stationary flocks, some of 
which had coai-se wool and others wool resembling that of the 
travelling flocks. These stationary flocks w^ere of importance num- 
erically in Spain, but they contributed little or nothing to sheep 
raising in outside countries. 

Sheep Raising in England. — England, instead of developing 
one or two general types of sheep, saw fit to encourage several types 
that were markedly different in the length and fineness of their 
wool. None of the wools from these breeds was as fine as that of 
the Merino, but they sold readily in the markets nevertheless, for 
they were more suitable for a variety of uses than wool from Spain. 

Aside from the difference in the nature of the wool, the sheep 
industries of England and Spain were dissimilar in other ways. The 
flocks of England were not in the hands of a very few powerful 
owners as they were in Spain. Travelling flocks were not established. 
The great problem of the English sheep farmer of earlier times was 
to procure sheep that were adapted to his particular locality. This 
largely accounts for the fact that there were many types. Another 
factor may have been the poor conditions for travelling, which kept 
the English farmer close to his home. With cold winters, scarcity 
of winter feed, and diseases to contend with, conditions were hard, 
and the owner was content wdth a type of sheep that would best 
withstand these hardships whether or not it would produce the kind 
of wool he most desired. 

Events Affecting Sheep Raising. — The great plague, or Black 
Death, of 1348, served as a great impetus to sheep growing in Eng- 
land. Laborers were so reduced in number by this plague that land 
owners were obliged to turn their lands into pastures. As sheep 
paid better than other classes of livestock, owing to the high price of 
wool, sheep raising became the " sheet anchor of English farming."" 
Flock husbandry, however, was still only a partial success because of 
inability to cope with the severe winters. The fact that it was 
profitable at all shows what a great demand there was for wool. 

During the reign of Edward ITT (1327-1377) a grant of special 
protection made in favor of all Flemish weavers, dyers, and fullers, 
who would settle in England for the purpose of following their 
trade, resulted in securing artisans skilled in the then most improved 
methods of cloth making. Soon afterwards, English wools came 



ROBERT BAKEWELL 7 

more and more to be made up at home so as to more nearly suit 
home demands. Later, in the reign of Elizabeth (1557-1603), still 
more of these artisans, as well as others of their countrymen, came 
to England as refugees. Thus was laid the foundation of England's 
great exj^ansion in manufacturing. 

Settlers from Flanders also brought the root and clover crops, the 
cultivation of which soon became of far-reaching benefit to the sheep 
industry, for they made possible an adequate supply of good winter 
feed. As a result tlie death rate of sheep was greatly reduced, and 
the production of wool per sheep was increased. 

Robert Bakewell. — Aside from improvement resulting from 




Fig. 3. — Mutton sheep of the present-day type on a pasture in Great TBri tain. They are 
wide, deep and compact in form. They mature early and fatten easily. 

better feeding, there was no great progress until the time of Kobert 
Bakewell, 1725-1794. Wool had declined in price until, with the 
rapidly advancing values of English lands, it alone would no longer 
justify the keeping of sheep. With the enormous expansion of 
manufacturing and of other industries in England, there were 
developing great urban populations demanding meat. Bakewell was 
able to see that these changed conditions demanded a new type of 
sheep, and accordingly he set to work to make of the long, ungainly, 
coarse-Avooled, late-maturing sheep of his community a compact, 
early-maturing, easily fattened animal. He succeeded so well and 
his work impressed breeders so profoundly that he is generally 
acknowledged as the first great improver of livestock. He demon- 
strated that certain fundamental laws of breedino^ aided in attain- 



8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 

ing what he sought. He thus inaugurated a period of improvement 
in the sheep industry of his country such as the world had never 
seen. It was essentially an improvement securing better mutton 
and early maturity, but many other points received careful atten- 
tion. The work Bakewell started attained such importance that 
England became the native home of nearly all of the modern mutton 
breeds, and sheepmen from all parts of the world still go there for 
breeding stock ( Fig. 3 ) . 

Importance of Wool in New Countries. — From the foregoing 
it is seen that sheep first advanced to great importance both in 
Spain and in England because of their wool rather than because of 
their flesh. It is not to be supposed that they v»^ere of no value as 
meat-producing animals, but it was the demand for wool that first 
made sheep raising profitable in these countries. Likewise, it was 
the demand for wool that first caused sheep to gain jjrominence in 




Fig. 4. — Wagon truin drawing wool from the interior to shipping point. It is the 
sheep's fleece that makes it suitable for remote regions where there are neither railroads 
nor highways. 

tlie newer lands, the lands which now rank with the great sheep 
growing countries of the world. Why should this be so ? Because 
those who begin ths development of a new country are through 
necessity interested in products which can be marketed at a long 
distance from the place of production. Usually, too, they want 
products which can be profitably handled in spite of poor trans- 
portation facilities. Value considered, wool is' light in weight, and 
it is imperishable with respect to time involved in getting it to 
market. It was only natural, therefore, that the colonizers of 
Australia, of New Zealand, and of Argentina should turn to the 
production of wool. In our own country the significant expansion 
of sheep growing did not begin until a few years after the republic 
was established (Fig. 4). 



WESTWARD MOVEMENT OF SHEEP 9 

Sheep Raising in North America. — Colonial Times. — 

Domestic sheep were brought to North America by early colonists. 
It is thought that the Spaniards wiio founded old Santa Fe, New 
Mexico, brought with them the sheep from which the multi-colored 
flocks of the Navajo Indians have descended. If, as is generally 
supposed, sheep of this original stock were taken out of Spain, 
special permission to do so surely must have been granted by the 
king. The colonists along the Atlantic seaboard introduced the 
English, and a few other mutton breeds. As a rule the flocks were 
not large, the main object in keeping sheep being to supply wool 
for making homespuns, and only incidentally to furnish a part of 
the family meat supply. 

The Embargo Act. — In the year 1807, the j)eople of the United 
States were forbidden by the Embargo Act to trade with foreign 
powers. Although this statute was frequently violated, its effect 
upon foreign trade in general was keenly felt. Among other things 
it so restricted imports that it cause'd a shortage of woolens, and 
American manufacturers found more demand for such goods than 
their supply of raw wool would satisfy. Moreover, because it turned 
many people in New England aw^ay from commerce into manu- 
facturing, it still further increased the demand for raw wool. Men 
active in the affairs of the nation, realizing the need of more wool 
to supply the woolen mills, de\oted l)oth time and means to the task 
of getting more sheep into the country. Napoleon had ruined 
Spain's monopoly on Spanish Merinos. But years before this. 
Saxony in Germany, through a gift of a number of Merinos to her 
chief ruler from the king of Spain, had demonstrated that at least 
one other country be.>^ides Spain could grow ^lerino sheep and that 
she could even surpass Spain in the quality of wool produced. 
Saxony's success gave confidence to Americans who were interested 
in getting more fine-wooled sheep into their country. Merinos 
accordingly were imported, and soon they showed that they could 
thrive and produce wool of good quality in their new environment. 
There soon arose a craze for these sheep which continued from 1808 
until about 1816, during which time quite impossible claims were 
made for them. Nevertheless they proved to be the type of sheep 
needed not only then but for many years afterwards, for they were 
adapted to grazing on undeveloped lands and to the production of 
that fine wool for which there was so strong a demand. 

Westward Movement of Sheep. — The westward movement of 



10 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 

sheep began early in tlie iiineteciitli century during the period of 
mania for Merinos. Gradually flocks, mainly of Merino breeding, 
spread over the fertile, virgin lands of tlie Ohio Valley and of the 
Great Lakes region. When these lands became somewhat thickly 
settled and high in price, many sheepmen, desiring to operate on a 
large scale, moved farther west where range was cheap and extensive. 
It was chiefly because of vast stretches of cheap range in the West 
that certain of our sheepmen almost constantly kept on the march, 
first over the Appalachians, then across the Mississippi, thence west 
to the Eockies and southwest into Texas, and finally through all the 
Eocky Mountain Eegion. 

Changes in Centers of Sheep Population Shown by Census 
Reports. — In 1840, as the census reports clearly show, the regions 
of densest sheep population were A'ermont, New Hampshire, and 
New York. At that time there were no sheep in the far West except 
those of the Navajo Indians in northern New Mexico. In fact, tha 
only state west of the Mississippi having sheep in considerable 
numbers was Missouri. Ten years later that part of Ohio lying 
south of Lake Erie was the region of densest sheep population. 
There was a noticeable thinning out in New Hampshire, Vermont, 
and New York, and a pronounced increase in southeastern Michigan, 
and in all of Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Illinois. Flocks 
had also made their way into southern Wisconsin. and southeastern 
Iowa. The census of 1860 shows sheep in eastern Texas and the 
coast and central parts of California. Although the census report 
of 1870 does not show much new territory occupied by sheep in the 
Mississippi Valley and the far West, it does show with a great deal 
of significance a great increase in numbers in those regions and a 
great decrease in such eastern states as New Y'ork, Vermont, and 
New Hampshire. In 1880 southeastern Wisconsin, along with 
southeastern Michigan and much of Ohio, were the regions of 
densest sheep population. Such states as the Dakotas, Nebraska, 
Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming, which ten years before were almost 
unoccupied, now .showed a liberal sprinkling of flocks. By IS'DO all 
the western states and territories were occupied and by 1900 the 
Eocky Mountain region had become the most important sheep 
section of the country. The census of 1910 showed that 58.-11 
per cent of the sheep of the United States were in the West 
(Figs. 5 and 6). 



CENTERS OF SHEEP POPULATION 



11 




12 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 




SHEEP RAISING IN AUSTRALIA 13 

Flocks in Farming Regions. — When sheepmen first skimmed 
over the country with their extensive flocks their methods were 
somewhat similar to those of the large owners in the West to-day, 
who operate under what are called range conditions. That is, range 
or pasture was plentiful and in such states as Illinois and Iowa sheep 
were occasionally ranged in the open under the care of herders. But 
gradually the large flocks disappeared and in their place there arose 
small flocks which were kept in comparatively small, fenced fields. 
These became knoA\Ti as farm fiocks, and they now typify the sheep 
industry of the United States in all but the western states. 

Mutton Blood. — At first the Merino predominated in nearly 
all farm flocks, but gradually English mutton breeds were intro- 
duced mi til now nearly all such flocks are of mutton blood. The 
change to mutton blood was the result of the decline in the price of 
wool and the increase in the demand for mutton. The rise of laud 
values also had an influence, for there came a time when the sheep 
yielding principally a fleece could not return a profit to the owner 
of high-priced land. For the same reason mutton blood has also 
been introduced in tlie far West, where range conditions still exist, 
but it will probably always be necessary to keep on the range sheep 
that carry a large proportion of Merino blood in order to preser^^e 
the close-fiocking instinct and a fleece that will withstand semi-arid 
conditions. 

Increase in Value. — The importance of the sheep industry in 
the United States now as compared with the past cannot be deter- 
mined by merely comparing numbers. Sheep are considerably more 
valuable on the head basis than they were years ago, Ijecause the 
revenue from each sheep is much greater than in days of wool grow- 
ing only. The breeding ewe yields not only wool but also lambs 
which are sold for mutton, and when she has passed her period of 
usefulness as a breeder or a wool producer, either on the farm or on 
the range, she still has a value as a mutton product. 

Sheep Raising in Australia. — Prior to 1830, sheep growing in 
Australia had not attained commercial significance. Merino sheep 
were introduced from the Cape of Good Hope as early as 1788 by 
Captain Phillip, the first governor of New South Wales. In 1825 a 
group of Englisli capitalists formed a land company and founded a 
large pastoral estate in Tasmania, which was then known as Van 
Diemens Land. Between 1825 and 1830 this company spent more 
than $145,000 in importing Merinos from Saxony and some of the 



14 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 

mutton breeds of England. The majority of the purchases were of 
the best Saxony types, descended from Spanish Merinos. A Mr. 
Warrington of Tasmania, in 1829, formed two separate breeding 
flocks from two noted families of Spanish Merinos. 

England liad long since ceased exporting wool and it is said 
that the original aim of the Tasmanian flock owners was to grow 
wool for England, and, ultimately, to render that country inde- 
pendent of Spanish, German, and other foreign sources of supply; 
but for many years their most valuable work was the breeding of 
Merino sheep for the rapidly multiplying "stations" around the 
coastal fringe of the Australian mainland. When wool from the 
Australian Merino flocks came into the hands of English manu- 
facturers it met with a ready demand, and the growers were told 
that if they could supply such wool in bulk to the English trade, 
they would find a large and profita])le market for it. 

From 1830 on, the Australian wool growing industry made great 
progress. As owners found in the early days of sheep raising in our 
own country, so too the owners in Australia have found the wool 
ty^ie most profitalile; and, largely because their country has been 
populated at a much slower pace than ours, they have been much 
slower to change to the mutton type than we. Merino blood still 
predominates in Australian flocks, although the mutton breeds are 
gradually gaining ground and the mutton qualities of the Merinos 
are being improved. As the supply of both mutton and wool in 
Australia far exceeds the home demand, sheep raisers are obliged 
to depend largely on foreign markets. Until recent years very little 
of the wool intended for export was sold before it left Australian 
ports. It was consigned to commission firms in England, who dis- 
posed of it by means of auction sales. But the custdm of selling 
wool in Australian seaboard cities is now rapidly growing. 

Australia disposes of her surplus mutton by shi|jping frozen car- 
casses to England. Until refrigeration for ocean liners was per- 
fected, she had practically no outlet for her surplus supply of meat, 
and hence there was no great incentive for encouraging the mutton 
types of sheep. 

Present Importance. — Australia has no superior as a sheep 
country. It is a large country where pastorial agriculture has been 
emphasized for many years and sheep seem to have been the animals 
best adapted to her grazing lands. There has always been room for 
expansion ; which fact, together with the demand for wool and 



POLITICAL UNREST IN SHEEP COUNTRIES 15 

mutton, has been the main factor in the steady g-rowth of the sheep 
industry in spite of such diihculties as periodic droutlis, ravages by 
rabbits, and lack of transportation lines extending far into the 
interior. The government is fostering tlie industry and those en- 
gaged in it are investing money to protect themselves against rab- 
bits and to prevent excessive losses in years of drouth. 

Sheep Raising in New Zealand. — Sheep were not taken into 
iSTevi' Zealand until 18-iO, which was shortly after the first settle- 
ment established there by Europeans. Merinos exclusively were im- 
]>orted in the beginning, but as the needs of the trade developed, 
mutton l)reeds were introduced and it was found that they did 
unusually well. After 18S'-3, the year in which the first shipment of 
frozen nmtton was made from the country, tbe mutton breeds gained 
on the Merinos so rapidly that by 1910 the wool from pure Merinos 
did not form over three ])cr cent of the total clip. 

Density of Sheep Population. — New Zealand has less than 
twice the area of the state of Illinois, and yet in 1!)1() she reported 
2 3,792,9 J:7 sheep. Think what a dense sheep population that is as 
compared with similar areas anywhere in our own country ! Mutton 
is the staple meat in New Zealand. It is even more common in the 
private homes of both country and city, and in public eating places 
than is beef in our own country. 

Practically all sheep in New Zealand are managed under the 
■■' paddock," or " fencing," system. This is also true of Australia. 
Many of the fences are rabbit proof and cost about four hundred 
dollars per mile. As a general practice, the herding system char- 
acteristic of our sheep industry in the West ceased in Australia and 
New Zealand in the latter part of the last century. 

Sheep Raising in South America. — At the time of the con- 
quest of Peru there already existed a breed of supposedly indigenous 
sheep possessing enough good about them to be prized by the Incas 
Indians and by the conquering Spaniards. Gibson tells us that wool 
was first exported from the River Plate as early as the year 1600. 
However, the beginning of an extensive sheep husbandly in South 
America did not come until a much later time. 

Political Unrest in Leading Sheep Countries. — The great 
sheep countries in South x'Vmerica are the Argentine Republic and 
Uruguay. In 1813 a shipment of pure Spanish Merinos arrived in 
the ])rovince of Buenos Aires. Upon this shipment was founded 
the first flock of inijiroved Merinos in South America. Although 



16 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 

the number oi' sheep in the Argentine Republic greatly increased 
after the founding of this Hock, the progress of the industry was 
greatly hindered by the numerous political revolutions which were 
common throughout all of the Eiver Plate region and sheep raising 
was later in attaining great commercial importance than in the 
United States and Australia. 

Importance of Merino Blood. — Like each of the other coun- 
tries mentioned above, South America found the wool type, or 
Merino sheep most profitable at first. Southdowns, the premier 
mutton sheep of England, were introduced as early as 1825, but 
l)ecause of their low yield of wool and predisposition to foot rot, 
they did not win wide favor. Then, too, the Merino had the 
gregarious instinct intensely developed, which was valuable to South 
American owners for the same reason that it is of value to any 
conmiunity where sheep are in the care of herders. 

Use of Mutton Breeds. — Merino blood is still present in most 
of the flocks, but in many cases it is mingled with the blood of the 
English mutton breeds, — chiefly with the Lincoln and Eomney 
Marsh. Both of these are long-wooled breeds which, when crossed 
with the Merino, produce a beautiful lustrous wool and a lamb that 
is suitable for the frozen carcass trade with England. 

Present Status of Sheep Industry. — It has been said that there 
is probably no region where the shepherd's life is easier than in 
Argentina. Predatory animals are few. Except along the base of 
tlie Andes, no preparation of feed for winter is necessary, and, 
except in marshy regions, or in seasons of unusual rainfall, disease 
is rare. Nevertheless, in many parts the sheep industry has passed 
its meridian. The beautiful expanses of land, furnishing the plenty 
which has made life so easy for shepherds, are valuable for agri- 
cultural pur}X)ses, and the coming of cultivated fields is not only 
desirable but inevitable. But Mr. Joseph Wing, who visited the 
Argentine and contiguous countries as a special agent for Presi- 
dent Taft's Tariff Board, says there is still much land in South 
America suitable for sheep production which is not fully occupied. 

Sheep Raising in South Africa. — Although Merino sheep were 
imported into South Africa one hundred and fifty years before they 
were introduced into Australia, it is only recently that the wool 
markets of the world have begim to receive considerable amounts of 
pure and grade Merino wool from South African flocks. For 
various reasons the progress of sheep husbandry has been compara- 



THE IMPORTANT SHEEP COUNTRIES 17 

tively slow. Sheep scab has been very hard to contend with, and 
measures adopted by the Uovernment liave not yet proved adequate 
for keeping it under control Tlie bUxck natives upon whom many 
sheepmen have had to depend for hibor, have not heen very reliable, 
and, tlierefore, because of the poor quality of labor, it has not been 
possible to produce as gooj mutton and wool as natural conditions 
would warrant. Further, predatory animals, jackals especially, 
liave hindered the growth of the sheep industry by enforcing expense 
in erecting fences and l)y making it hazardous to keep sheep in 
certain sections. And finally, South Africa, like Australia, is sul)- 
ject to drouths wliich visit great hardships on sheep owners; in fact, 
they are the worst drawback to sheep raising. They are most pro- 
nounced in that part of the interior known as the Karroo, but 
periodically they also extend over the Transvaal, Orange Free State, 
and parts of Natal. Their effect is all the more severe because 
they usually come just after a period of such good feed in the veld 
districts that sheep owners have been tempted into overstocking. 
But in spite of the drawbacks, which after all every country pos- 
sesses to greater or less extent, South Africa is making marke^d 
progress in wool production. Slieej) owners arc very much interested 
in breeding; they are giving much more attention to classing and 
grading wool for market than formerly, and in still other ways they 
are manifesting keen interest in sheep husl)andry. 

The tendency of recent years has been in favor of the big-framed 
robust-wooled type of IMerino, — the WanganeHas and Kambouillet, 
whilst at the present time, the crossing of strictly mutton breeds, 
such as the Southdown, Suffolk, and Shropshire, on Merino ewes 
is attracting attention. 

It is a significant fact tliat American breeders, more especially 
Ohio and Michigan men, annually exported a number of Eambouil- 
lets and Merinos to Sovith Africa until the outbreak of the war in 
191-1. 

The Important Sheep Countries. — In the foregoing brief his- 
torical review of sheep raising the countries mentioned have each 
received separate attention, not only because they belong at the top 
of the list of the great sheep comitries of the world, but also because 
they are the most important of the newer countries. Of course, 
other countries than these kee]) large numl)ers of sheep and the fol- 
lowing tabulation shows the importance of sheep in various coun- 
2 



18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP RAISING 

tries and it also gives some notion of where the world's supply of 
wool is produced.^ 

A — World Production of Sheep and Wool: 1916 

Sheep — approximate number 614,857,418 

Woo] — approximate number of pounds 2,717,223,100 

B-Leadmg Sheep Countrtes: ^^^^^^ Numberof 

Australia and Tasmania . . .1915 82,011,606 

Argentina 1912 83,545,931 

United States . 1916 48,483,000 

Census of 1910 52,183,423 

British South and East Africa. . 1913 43,009,843 
United Kingdom of Great 

Britain 1915 27,552,136 

New Zealand 1915 24,607,868 

Russian Empire 1911 80,874,000 

Ottoman Empire 1910 and 1912 48,284,678 

Uruguay 1908 26,286,296 

C — Wool Produced in Different Countries, According to Latest Estimates 

Available in 1916 : Pounds 

Australia and Tasmania 463,750,000 

Russian Empire 380,000,000 

United States . 288,490,000 

Argentina 264,500,000 

New Zealand 181,282,880 

United Kingdom of Great Britain 121,200,043 

Ottoman Empire and Balkan States 90,500,000 

British Africa 157,761,470 

Uruguay 143,293,000 

France 75,000,000 

British India 60,000,000 

Spain 52,000,000 

China 50,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 41,600,000 

Algeria 33,184,000 

Germany 25,600,000 

Italy 21,500,000 

Chili 20,000,000 

' Compiled from Annual Wool Review of the National Association of 
Wool Manufacturers. 



QUESTIONS 19 

Pounds 

Greece 16,000,000 

British Canadian Provinces 11/210,000 

Portugal 10,000,000 

Peru 9,420,707 

Mexico 7,000,000 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where were sheep first domesticated? What uses were probably first 

made of sheep? 

2. In what condition was sheep husbandry in. Spain when Columbus dis- 

covered America ? 

3. How does Spain rank as a sheep country to-day? 

4. How did England and Spain difi'er in methods of sheep raising? 

5. What was Bakewell's contribution to the slieep industry of Great 

Britain? 

6. What of the importance of sheep raising in North America at the time 

Bakewell lived? 

7. What of the importance of wool growing in new countries? 

8. When did significant expansion of sheep raising in North America take 

place and what were the circumstances that augmented it? 

9. Recount the changes in the distribution of sheep in tlie United States 

between 1840 and 1910; the changes in the breeding of sheep during 
tliat time. 

10. Of what importance was sheep raising in your state at the time it was 

admitted to the Union? 

11. Compare the sheep industry of Australia with that of New Zealand. 

12. What are the leading sheep countries in South America? 

13. Name the countries which produce the bulk of the world's supply of 

wool. 

14. Where do Australia, New Zealand, and South America market the bulk 

of their mutton and wool ? How far are they from these markets ? 



CHAPTER II 

PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING IN LEADING 
SHEEP COUNTRIES 

Range Method, Using Herders. — In the western part of the 
United States sheep raising is commonly carried on in the large 
flock or band under the care of a herder who keeps the sheep on a 
comparatively large area of unenclosed land — plains, foot-hills, and 
mountains. A band varies in number from 1500 to 3000, and 
besides the herder, requires the services of a camp tender, whose 
duties are to get provisions, move camp, select a new site where there 
is comparatively good feed, assist in cooking, and count the sheep 
(Figs. 7 and 8)". 

Range Supplemented by Cultivated Crops. — At first range 
sheepmen in the United States depended solely upon the wild growth 
of the land for their sheep feed. Aside from selecting as good 
natural range as possible no preparation was made for feeding in 
the stormy periods of winter when the snow covered the feed too 
deep for the sheep to get to it. Consequently many starved. But, 
now very few deaths result from lack of feed because the winter 
range is supplemented with such feeds as corn, cottonseed cake, 
barley, oats and alfalfa hay. The corn and cottonseed cake are 
shipped in, but the other feeds are raised in the West in dry farm- 
ing and irrigated regions. Alfalfa ranks first in importance for it 
is used more extensively than any other feed in sup])lementing the 
winter range, and the practice of using it for summer range is 
increasing (Fig. 9). 

Ranging on Enclosed Lands. — Many of the large flocks of 
Australia and New Zealand are kept on large tracts of enclosed 
land where no herders are required. It is claimed that the sheep 
can make much better use of the range under this system than they 
can under the herding system. Under the herding system each sheep 
regularly maintains a fairly definite position in the band. For 
example, certain sheep are always at the front while others are 
always in the rear. Those in the rear do not find as much to eat as 
those at the front; hence the band as a whole cannot be so uni- 
20 



HANGING ON ENCLOSED LANDS 



21 



formly fed as when it is kept within an enclosure because in the 
enclosure the band breaks up into a number of small flocks that 
live and feed more or less independently of each other. Then, too, 
the sheep in a band tended by a herder must be driven a great deal. 
They must be rounded toward camp and bedded down for the night; 
they must be kept from other bands of sheep ; and frequently they 
must be driven to a watering place. All this driving is not so 
beneficial to the sheep as exercise taken at their own inclination. 




Fig. 7. — World distribution of sheep. It will be noted that there are six world centers 
of sheep raising, of which four, the South American countries. South Africa, Australia, and 
New Zealand, are new land with sparse population and are all located in the Southern Hem- 
isphere. The two centers in the Northern Hemisphere are the Balkan i^tates and Great 
Britain. In Asia Minor and in the Balkan States conditions of topography, climate, and 
the nomadic habits of the people in the recent past cause sheep to be important farm 
animals. In Great Britain many factors combine to make sheep raising a prominent indus- 
try in spite of high land values and extreme industrial concentration of population. The 
Russian Empire and the United States, although they rank high in total number of sheep, 
are, owing to large area, far down the list in number per square mile. 

Still other advantages of the enclosure system are that the fences 
are said to cost less than the extra labor required in the herding 
system and to a large extent they are proof against animals that 
make sheep their prey. 

In Australia and New Zealand, where both the herding and the 
enclosure methods have been tried, sheep owners favor the enclosure 
system. 



22 



PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING 




THE HURDLING METHOD 



23 



The Farm Flock Method. — The flocks kept on the farms of 
the East, South and ^liddle West of the United States often contain 
fewer than 25 sheep and seldom more than 400 or 500. They are not 
under the care of special herders or shepherds, but of persons en- 
trusted with other duties connected with the farm. As a rule these 
flocks are a factor of secondary importance in a scheme of diversified 
farming. Often they are kept for the purpose of destroying weeds, 
and they are commonly given the compliment of converting into 
mutton and wool what otherwise would be waste. But farm flocks 




Fig. 9. — Supplementing the winter range with hay and other feed reduces the losses of 
old sheep, increases the vitality of the oncoming crop of lambs, and fills the udders of the 
ewes with milk for the lambs. 



that are made to subsist mostly on weeds and waste are neither in- 
telligently handled nor profitable. Since farm flocks represent the 
type of slieep raising followed in so many parts of the United 
States, much of the discussion which follows will be devoted to 
their selection, care and management (Fig. 10). 

The Hurdling Method. — The hurdling method of sheep raising 
may be seen in its perfection in England, wliere thousands of sheep 
are kept within hurdles for several months in the year. It is also 
much in use in Scotland. It is a type of sheep raising extremely 
different from the range method. It is intensive, supporting several 
sheep on each acre of land. 



24 



PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING 



As an appurtenance of sheep raising, hurdles are light, movable 
panels of fence which a man can carr}- with ease. With them the 
shepherd makes a temporary enclosure for his flock. The lambs are 




Flo. 10. — The farm flock usually numbers less than one hundred sheep. 




Fig. 11. — In Great Britain thousands of sheep are kept within hurdles which are moved 
often to furnish fresh feed. 

usually permitted to go through creeps ahead of the ewes and in 
this way they get the best of the forage while their less fastidious 
mothers, having access to it a day or two later, make the most 
economical use of it by trimming it down close. As soon as a 
growth is eaten, the ground is turned and sown to another crop. Of 



PURE-BRED FLOCK METHOD 



25 



course crops, like the grasses and clovers, are not treated in this way, 
hut are left to grow up again. 

The hurdling method aims not only at securing a maximum 
growth for sheep from a given area of ground, but also at furnishing 
almost a constant change of feeding ground. Sheep thoroughly 
enjoy a new feeding place, a fact which English shepherds have 
fully recognized as essential to successful flock husbandry. Anyone 
who has seen the sheep of England \vithin hurdles cannot question 




Fig. 12. — Meal time for western sheep fattening on a corn-belt farm. 



the efficiency of the hurdling method for bringing sheep as nearly as 
possible to their perfection. Any type of movable fencing can be 
used in the hurdling method (Fig. 11). 

Pure-Bred Flock Method. — -Owners of pure-bred flocks have 
for their principal object the selling of breeding stock. They sell to 
the owners of commercial flocks M'ho wish to use pure-bred rams but 
wlio do not care to keep pure-bred females, and of course, they also 
sell to each other. Since the object of the man who raises for breed- 
ing purposes is so different from that of the man who raises for the 
(ipen market, it is natural to call his method of sheep raising a dis- 



26 PRESENT TYPES OF SHEEP RAISING 

tinct type. He has to take certain things into consideration which 
do not enter into the operations of the owner of a commercial flock ; 
for instance, the location of his farm, the study of individual sheep 
rather than of flocks or bands, the ability to make matings that will 
produce animals with great inherent possibilities, to feed so that 
these possibilities will be made apparent, and finally, the finding of 
a market for this product. In fact, the successful management of 
the pure-bred flock requires a proprietor of a special type with a 
special training. 

Sheep and Lamb Feeding. — A great many western sheep and 
lambs are fattened for the market in the Middle West and in certain 
parts of the East. 

These western sheep and lambs are purchased in the autunm 
when large numbers are reaching the central markets. In such 
states as Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri they are usually allowed to 
run first in the fields, where they feed on pasture stubble, corn 
stalks, weeds, and in some cases, soybeans and rape. They accom- 
plish what may be termed a general " cleaning up " of the farm, 
and many farmers depend on them for this as others depend on the 
small flock for the same function. Before the fattening process is 
finished it is almost always necessary to supplement the feed of the 
fields with grain and hay. Further east, as in Ohio, Michigan, and 
New York, feeding sheep and lambs are not often given a run in the 
fields, but are placed in the barns immediately after their arrival at 
the farm and are fattened on various harvested feeds. In a few 
sections of the country sheep and lambs are still fed in large plants 
especially constructed for the purpose. This kind of feeding is very 
largely a speculative business as both the animals and the feeds used 
have to be purchased (Fig. 12). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the types of sheep raising commonly practiced in the prominent 

sheep countries. 

2. Which type is followed in your community? 

3. In your opinion which type requires the most labor per sheep? Which 

gives the greatest returns per sheep ? 

4. Which types are most likely to be followed in communities where land 

is very fertile and costly? 

5. Which types are likely to becomie more general in the United States 

than at present? 



CITAPTEl^ ITT 
PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP 

Appearance of Unimproved Sheep. — In countries practicing 
nicxlern nii'thods of breeding and feeding, the domestic sheep {Ovis 
aries) is markedly different in appearance from its unimproved 
kind. Judged according to our conception of right proportions, un- 
improved sheep are ill-shaped, Math long, thin legs, long necks, and 
narrow bodies. As a rule their wool is coarse, characterless, ad- 
mixed with hair, variable in color, and does not extend well over 
the lower parts of the body. It may be of good quality on the 
shoulders, but coarse and very little' different from liair on the 
thighs, and in color it may be white, brown, gray, or black on 
different individuals, or sometimes two or more of these colors 
appear in the same fleece. The sheep belonging to the Navajo 
Indians of New Mexico and Arizona furnish the most interesting 
study of unimproved strains to be found in North America 
(Fig. 13). 

Breeding Problems. — WTien man first started to domesticate 
sheep, he probably recognized certain valuable characteristics in 
them, and he likely bred for these, or it may be that he recognized 
some of their more valuable characteristics before he began the work 
of domestication; for Shaler says that man attains some of the 
mechanic arts before he begins to domesticate animals. Weaving, 
a very old art, was supplanted by the practice of pressing moist wool 
into a felt, which itself was an advance over the custom of using 
skins with hairy or woolly covering for clothing and shelter. 

Improvement of Wool. — From all we can leam it would appear 
that the problem of improving wool must have early attracted the 
attention of sheep owners. Probably the first step consisted in 
getting a longer, heavier growth of wool more nearly free from an 
admixture of hair. Very likely such improvement was sought to 
make the wool easier to handle in the process of weaving, which was 
a considerable task among the nomads Avhose raiment, tents, and 
beds were woven from wool and hair. 

Fine Wool. — As the art of weaving developed and as the people 
cultivated a taste for fine raiment and furnishings, wool of fine 

27 



28 



PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP 



quality undoubtedly began to be prized. The Komans went to much 
trouble to produce this kind of wool. They kept their sheep covered 
with clotlis and confined in barns in order to make the wool fibers 
fine and soft. At frequent intervals they washed their sheep, combed 
their lleeces to keep the wool from matting, rubbed fine oil into their 
skins, and moistened their fleeces with wine. By selecting rams with 
fine fleeces they succeeded in developing breeding stock which pos- 
sessed very fine wool. 

The production of fine wool has been a problem of considerable 
importance ever since the time of the Romans, if not before. 
Breeders in Spain, norniany, France, and England have worked at 




Fig. 13. — Sheep and goats belonging to the Navajo intlians. The sheep are ill-shaped and 

not uniform in color. 



it and it still receives attention in leading sheep countries such as 
Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, North America., and South 
America. 

Color of Wool. — In improving wool, color has received careful 
attention. Variety of color was perhaps regarded favorably in early 
times, but when various dye stuffs came to be used, white wool was 
preferred, because none but a black dye can be used on wool which 
is lilack, brown, or gray. It may be that white sheep were once 
uncommon, for after Spain attained prominence as a wool-growing 
country her wool was reported as being black. But in all countries 
where improved methods of sheep husbandry are practiced, the con- 
stant elimination of blacks, broAvns, and grays has been so effective 



DURING THE PAST 125 YEARS 



29 



that color scarcely enters into the problem of wool improvement at 
the present time, although in a few breeds some ditliciilty is ex- 
perienced in preventing a light scattering of dark fibers in the fleece 
(Fig. 14). 

Combining Various Properties of the Fleece. — ^The problem 
of associating length, strength, and weight with quality of fleece has 
caused improvers of wool a great deal of effort. Length combined 




Fig. 14.— The Moufl 



-a wild sheep. Note the lack of uniformity in color, 
coat is hair. 



Exterior of 



with quality and strength became very important within the past 
century when fine worsteds, fabrics requiring long, fine, strong 
wool, came into fashion, and it was the desire to make wool growing 
pay that led to inereaise in weight of fleece. 

During the past 125 years Saxony in Germany, Australia, and 
the United States have contributed most to improvement in wool 
growing. Experts in Saxony studied the wool of breeding rams in 
minute detail, and made great improvement in fineness of fiber and 
in uniformity of the quality of the fleece. Vermont and Oliio 



30 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP 

breeders taught the world a great deal about growing strong, fine 
fiber and fieeces of exceptional weight. Australian breeders con- 
tributed much in combining quality, length and weight and by 
determining the types of wool suited to different environments; in 
fact they have led the world in the general merit and integrity of 
their wool product. 

Although sheep breeders have by no means ceased to pay atten- 
tion to Avool, yet it is perhaps safe to say that the day of improve- 
ment, as characterized by an attempt to get into the fleece the 
maximum of fineness, length, and weight, has begun to wane. Great 
changes have come about in the manufacturing processes of wool. 
Long, fine wool, although still much sought after, is not so valu- 
al)le, relatively, as it once was because combs have been invented 
which will comb comparatively short wool. ]\Ianufacturers have 
learned to make all sorts of blends in order to meet the demands of 
fashion and it seems that they are capable of meeting almost any 
demand likely to be made. The world product is easily brought to 
their doors and they can combine quality, length, and strength 
through mechanical devices more cheaply tlian the grower can 
through breeding. The rise in the importance of mutton has re- 
sulted in a large amount of crosst-breeding in countries where the 
bulk of the wool was formerly produced by pure Merinos. Reports 
of the great wool sales in Bradford, England, show enormous in- 
creases in amounts of cross-bred wool in recent years. This is a 
pretty sure indication of either a check to progress in wool im- 
provement through breeding, or of a readjustment of the notions of 
wool improvement. In the writer's opinion it is an indication of 
the latter (Fig. 15). 

Improvement of Mutton. — Although the fiesh of sheep has 
always been used for food, it seems that the improvement of the 
mutton qualities was a much later problem in sheep breeding than 
was the improvement of wool. Whether the first object in improv- 
ing mutton was to secure a more palatable product or a cheaper one 
is not altogether clear, but the Aveight of evidence is in favor of the 
latter, for it was said of Bakewell that Avhen he was confronted by a 
man who told him liis sheep were so fat a gentleman could not eat 
them, he declared that he was not breeding sheep for gentlemen, 
but for men. More mutton, — on fewer acres, produced in less time, 
to furnish more to eat with less waste, — was the object, rather than 
to tickle the palate of the epicure. But before economy of produc- 



IMPROVEMENT OF MUTTON 



31 




32 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP 

tion had gone very far, palatabiiity was joined with this primary 
object, so that the epicure, too, can. now make his selection of a 
mutton joint from the improved mutton breeds. 

Changes. — Mutton improvement has involved changes in form, 
quality, fattening properties, age at maturity, feeding capacity, 
milking function, and prolificacy. With the possible exception of 
the last two, these factors are so interdependent that they all had to 
be considered at the same time. And it is clear that mutton im- 
provement could not go very far without considering milking prop- 
erties because the making of a good mutton lamb depends in large 
part on its getting plenty of milk. But sheep's milk was a himian 
food in very early times, hence the milking function may have 
received considerable attention before the era of mutton improve- 
ment, still it was woefully neglected in flocks of fine wool sheep in 
Italy and Spain. 

Prolificacy has to do entirely with the economic phases of pro- 
duction and whether or not an aistempt is made to increase it depends 
on conditions. Until mutton became important as a commodity for 
sale, there was certainly no great incentive to try to fix such a thing 
as the twinning habit because it was possible to keep up the size of 
flocks for wool production by a rate of increase of one lamb a year 
from each ewe. Even where mutton is an important consideration, 
the supply of feed must be liberal before breeders attempt to en- 
courage great prolificacy, because ewes wnth twins must not only 
have the tendency to milk well, but they must have plenty of feed 
so that they can produce enough milk to grow their lambs well. 
Partly on account of a lack of a liberal supply of feed, there are 
places devoted to the production of mutton and wool in which single 
lambs are much to be preferred to twins, but in places where ewes 
can easily take good care of two lambs, marked prolificacy is usually 
desired. 

England was the center of mutton improvement. Beginning 
with Bakewell, conditions were favorable for encouraging English 
farmers to effect this improvement. They had the climate and crops 
necessary to grow sheep well ; they received a fair remuneration for 
their efforts, and numerous livestock shows created keen competition 
in the effort to secure perfection of animal form and finish. A great 
amount of improvement was effected in a comparatively short period, 
so much in fact, that many English breeders of the present time 
doubt whether significant further im.provement has been made in 
the last quarter or half century. 



ADAPTABILITY 33 

Combining Mutton and Wool. — Combining mutton and wool 
qualities became a problem after mutton attained importance. 
Obviously this i)roblem did not arise at the same time in all the 
large sheep-growing countries because mutton did not become im- 
portant in all of these countries at the same time. For example, 
Australia and New Zealand had comparatively little demand for 
mutton imtil the inception of ship refrigeration in 1882 permitted 
them to engage in the exportation of frozen carcasses. And in 
the United States, the West had little use for mutton sheep until 
transportation facilities were developed so that the live sheep could 
be sent to the large central markets. 

Until Bakewell began mutton improvement, he was disposed to 
give the wool no attention. Perhaps the size of his task in the field 
of mutton betterment justified him in this attitude, but his suc- 
cessors saw the folly of it if continued, and hence they did not fail 
to give wool attention commensurate with its importance. 

When the production of mutton became profitable in the newer 
sheep countries such as North America, South America, and Aus- 
tralia, there was a sheep stock that had been maintained primarily 
for its wool, and the wool from this stock was still too valuable to 
be altogether disregarded. Under such conditions the real prob- 
lem of combining mutton and wool qualities began. Crossing wool 
breeds with mutton breeds was the first step, and with a few ex- 
ceptions progress has not gone much further than this. In New 
Zealand a new type has been fixed from crosses between Merinos 
and the English long-wool mutton breeds. In the United States 
progress has been made in improving the mutton qualities of some 
of the wool breeds. 

A desirable combination of mutton and wool is still a large 
breeding problem on the ranges of the United States. As yet a 
type poasessing what is desired in wool and mutton properties, 
together with certain other characteristics, has not been fixed, but 
the Federal government is directing work along this line. 

Adaptability. — Adaptability always has been, and without doubt 
always will be a problem in sheep breeding. When sheep were in 
a wild state their adaptability was measured by their ability to live 
and procreate tlieir kind. When they came under domestication 
they had to be able, with the aid of man's protection, not only to 
live and procreate but also to produce something which man de- 
sired. Moreover, they had to produce the thing he wanted at a 
3 



34 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP 

cost he was willing to pay and in such a way that he got it with 
less trouble than he could have secured it, or an equally desirable 
substitute, from other known sources. 

Man may not have demanded mueli from sheep and he may not 
have removed them far from their natural habitat in the early 
stages of domestication. Hence, adaptability may not have been a 
serious problem at first. But as they were moved out of their 
natural environment under the guidance of man into lands differ- 
ent in altitude, soil, climate and vegetation, and as the demands on 
them for such products as wool, milk, and meat become greater than 
what they had yielded in the wild, then undoubtedly the serious 
side of the question of adaptability arose ; then attention had to 
be given to such things as constitution, hardiness, and fecundity. 

In Italy, fine-wool sheep were developed, but at the sacrifice of a 
high degree of adaptability, for the ewes were very poor mothers 
and the lambs were delicate. The ewes often had difficulty in par- 
turition ; they were very deficient in the milking function, and 
they frequently refused to own their lambs. To a certain extent 
the Merinos of Spain possessed the same faults, for it was said that 
frequently a percentage of their lambs were deliberately killed in 
order to allow each remaining lamb to suckle two ewes. In both 
Italy and Spain conditions seemingly were such as to permit the 
sheep industry to jirosper with this low degree of adaptability, but 
the fact that it is recorded in history shows that it received some 
attention. Spanish owners seemed to think that much travelling 
added to the hardiness of their sheep, and undoubtedly dropping 
along the wayside lambs unable to make the marches, helped to keep 
up a stronger race for the conditions to which their flocks were 
subjected. 

At an early time in England severe winters, scarcity of feed in 
winter, and foot rot weeded out the weak sheep, and frequently 
conditions were so severe that many of the very strongest animals 
died. Dealing with adversities, the English sheep farmer thor- 
oughly learned the importance of constitution and hardiness, and 
if he has neglected these characteristics at any time he has done so 
with his eyes open. He has done a great deal, indeed, in finding or 
evolving breeds adapted to different altitudes. Though England is 
a small country, the breeds on mountains, hills, and lowlands are 
markedly different and in such a way as to show that adaptability is 
the main cause. 



ADAPTABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES 35 

Neglecting Adaptability. — In seeking certain desirable char- 
acteristics in their sheep, breeders have often been guilty of at 
least temporarily overlooking adaptability and hardiness; or, as 
may have been the case in Italy and Spain, they have been willing 
to sacrifice these things to a certain extent in order to gain the 
characteristics especially desired. Bakewell's Leicesters lost in 
fecundity and hardiness ; breeders of Shropshires allowed their sheep 
to lose in constitution in order to gain extreme covering with wool 
on head and legs; following the Civil War Merino breeders in 
America sacrificed stamina in their sheep for the sake of extreme 
weight of fleece in proportion to body weight. 

Whether or not adaptability should be sacrificed, to a certain 
extent depends on the degree to which it is present and on the im- 
])ortance of the thing involved in making the sacrifice. Italy and 
Spain certainly were not in position safely to sacrifice further the 
mother instinct and milking function of their ewes even though 
tins would have gained for them in a per head return ; American 
Merino breeders in the period mentioned above went too far in 
reducing the stamina of their sheep, and Shropshire breeders made 
an economic mistake by permitting a loss in constitution for the 
sake of extreme covering of head and legs with wool. 

Importance of Adaptability in the United States. — As a 
problem, adaptability in sheep breeding or finding the right type 
is important in the United States for the following reasons : First, 
it has not received sufficient attention generally. With a few ex- 
ceptions, breeders of pure-bred mutton sheep in this country con- 
tinue to import breeding rams and ewes from English flocks; this 
goes to show that little has been done toward developing mutton 
types suitable to American conditions. Second, consumers are 
changing and may continue to change with respect to the kind of 
mutton and wool they want. Third, in many localities agricul- 
tural practices are changing and probably will continue to change 
for some time to come and hence the type of sheep suitable in a 
certain community at the present time may be out of date in a 
few years. The future will see more attention given to adapt- 
ability in sheep breeding in this country because, as the land comes 
to be more and more intensively handled the crops grown on it, both 
plant and animal, will have to be more and more efficient and any 
crop that does not fit well will have a hard time to retain a place. 



36 PROBLEMS IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF SHEEP 

QUESTIONS 

1. Enumerate the problems that have been involved in the improvement 

of sheep and indicate wliich pertained to the products yielded by 
sheep; which to the sheep themselves. 

2. What are the important problems in breeding at the present time in 

the United States? 

3. Show how breeding problems have changed in the United States. 

4. Why would you expect British breeders to excel American breeders 

in mutton improvement? 

5. Why did breeders in Australia first give attention to the improvement 

of wool rather than mutton? 

6. When does high degree of prolificacy become a breeding problem? Early 

maturity ? 



CHAPTER IV 
METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT 

Feeding and Shepherding. — Good feeding- and shepherding 
have played an important part in the making of the modern breeds 
of sheep. The providing of better feed through bringing the root 
and clover crops to England helped to pave the way for the breed 
improvement that came later. Evidently Bakewell recognized the 
value of good feed and care, for he kept about him faithful old 
herdsmen and grooms who were very painstaking in the feeding 
of the animals under their care. Doubtless he and other sreat 
breeders since his time would say that any method of breeding con- 
ducted with })oorly nourished animals will fall short of marked 
results, for if the animal is not well fed, it cannot exhibit its maxi- 
mum possibilities and these must be seen if substantial progress is 
to be made. 

Methods of Breeding. — Selection has been the keynote in breed 
improvement no matter what the method followed may have been, 
and the success of great breeders has been traceable, in no small 
degree, to their superior judgment in selecting breeding stock. 

Mass Breeding. — Selection without special reference to ances- 
try, or what has been termed mass breeding, was one of the first 
methods of breeding to be employed in the improvement of sheep. 
Breeders took the native sheep in their community and began their 
work by breeding what they considered the best. Perhaps some of 
the less desirable females were rejected, but mass breeding, as 
practiced in earlier times, extended little farther than the selection 
and use of what were judged to be the best rams. The Spaniards 
must have improved the wool of their sheep by this method. They 
also kept flocks pure within themselves, but their reason for so 
doing was that each of the large breeders considered his flock the 
best in the kingdom and believed that the introduction of blood 
from other flocks would cause retrogression rather than improve- 
ment. In England some improvement was made by selecting the 
best of the native stock for breeding purposes, but before Bakewell's 
time, unwarranted emphasis was often placed on very minor points. 
For example, in a certain community breeders would have nothing 

37 



38 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT 

to do with rams whose horns did not curve in front of their ears, 
while in another community they insisted that if rams did not have 
horns curving back of the ears they were unfit for breeding. It 
was Bakewell's good common sense in singling out points of utility 
for improvement quite as much or even more than his insight into 
laws of breeding that made him invaluable to livestock improvement. 

As a method, mass breeding possesses a great deal of merit and 
the amount of selection it involves is about all that is practiced at 
present by those breeders who raise sheep merely for the wool and 
mutton they produce. 

A Study of Matings. — When men became thoroughly absorbed 
in the problem of sheep breeding, they doul)tless began to study the 
animals to be mated, and this naturally led to attaching a history 
of the parents or an ancestry to an animal, for men soon learned 
that the physical make-up of the offspring was not dependent solely 
upon the appearance of the immediate parents. So far as is known, 
it was Bakewell who first studied matings closely, and unquestion- 
ably this study contributed, in no small way, to the far-reaching 
results of his work. At the present time the most skillful sheep 
breeders are close students of matings. A few years ago, the writer, 
while visiting a prominent breeder in England, was shown records 
which contained both pedigrees and carefully worded descriptions of 
all the ramis that had been used in the flock. In each breeding season 
these records were brought into use as a help in determining matings. 
Before time for breeding, each ewe was studied critically, then refer- 
ence was made to the breeding and appearance of the sire, grand- 
sire, and perhaps great grandsire. The decision as to the ram with 
which to mate her was not final until all of this study had been 
made. The flock bore ample evidence of the value of exercising such 
care in mating. 

A careful study of mating stimulated the tendency to observe 
associations which, when correctly noted, became a means of assist- 
ance in the selection of rams and ewes for breeding purposes. For 
example, when breeders observed that rams having suitable wool 
and body conformation, and strong, bold features about the head 
and neck sired stronger and better offspring than rams having simi- 
lar wool and body conformation, but lacking in strength and bold- 
ness of features, an important association in the degree of develop- 
ment of characters was discovered which has since been a useful 
guide in breed improvement. It is perhaps erroneous to say that all 



PEDIGREE OR THE ANCESTRAL HISTORY 39 

associations were entirely ignored until niatings were studied closely. 
Boldness of features in males and refinement of them in females 
undoubtedly attracted the attention of the very earliest breeders, 
but there were many important associations overlooked until matings 
became a matter of close study. When they were recognized and 
seized upon as an agency in selection, there was often a tendency to 
exaggerate them and to declare that they existed when in reality 
they did not. 

Pedigree or the ancestral history of the animal is really an 
outgrowth of the study of matings. Wlien pedigree is not over- 
estimated, it serves as a valuable agent in helping to direct con- 
structive breeding. But often when depended upon at all, too much 
reliance has been placed on pedigree and not enough on individual 
excellence. Too often it has ])een assumed that animals identical in 
pedigree are alike in breeding powers, hut we now know that this 
is not necessarily true. Although two sheep may be twins, and hence 
alike in pedigree, it does not necessarily follow that they have in- 
herited equally from each of their ancestors. One may have the 
stronger dose of inheritance from the ancestors in the sire's line 
and the other a stronger dose from those in the dam's line; or, one 
may inherit strongly from the grandsire on the side of the dam and 
the granddam on the side of the sire, while the other may inherit 
in converse manner. Many combinations are possible, and hence 
the possibility of animals as closely related as twins being unlike 
in the degree of the development of characters is relatively large. 
x\nd any breeder makes a mistake who practices selling the better 
of a pair of twins and retaining the poorer for breeding purposes, 
thinking that the latter will ])reed just as well as the former. 

Then, too, pedigree is frequently over-estimated in another way. 
It is not uncommon for breeders to take a fancy to an animal be- 
cause a certain great individual of the breed appears in its pedigree. 
This great animal may be as far removed as great grandparent and 
the individuals closer up in the pedigree may have been at best only 
average specimens. If such is the case, the animal in question 
should be of outstanding merit in order to draw marked attention, 
and eveui then he (in case it is a ram) should not be used exten- 
sively until his capacity as a breeder is determined from an exami- 
nation of his offspring. But too often faith in a pedigree con- 
taining a celebrity, even though he be two or three generations 
removed, goes far toward offsetting the commonness in an animal. 



40 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT 

In-and-in breeding, such as breeding sire to daughter, son to 
mother, or brother to sister, was another step forward in methods 
of improving sheep through breeding. Undoubtedly this practice 
occurred long before Bakewell's time, but, as far as we know, he 
was the first to employ it as an agency for improvement. We do 
not know whether he deliberately resorted to in-breeding or whether 
he took it up because he did not know where to procure animals that 
would better serve him in accomplishing his desired ends. 

As is well known to breeders with experience, in-breeding is a 
means by which the degree of development of characters is intensi- 
fied and fixed. Manifestly, then, it cannot be a means for doing 
good until there has been a careful study of matings, because it 
intensifies and fixes the bad as well as the good in an animal, and 
any breeder who does not possess keen judgment had better not try 
to make use of it. 

Line Breeding. — Line breeding which involves breeding to- 
•Vether animals of the same family or strain, but less closely related 
than those used in " in-breeding," has appealed to sheep breeders 
as being less erratic in behavior than in-breeding. It has been a 
great agency for improvement, especially among the English flocks, 
and perhaps it has been depended upon more than any other method 
in developing and fixing the type of the various breeds prominent 
in that country. Among great Shropshire breeders in England it 
has been the prevailing practice for a breeder to select a strain from 
which he draws his rams year after year, and it is only now and 
then that he uses a ram that could be considered foreign to the 
strain adopted. Rams belonging outside of the adopted strain are 
almost invariably used with caution, and if they do not combine and 
recombine, " nick " well, as breeders would say, with those characters 
already prevalent and desirable they and all their offspring arc 
immediately discarded. 

Cross Breeding. — The first step in the making of many of the 
most prominent mutton breeds of the present time consisted in 
crossing one breed upon another. It was the improvement secured 
by crossing the Southdown upon the old Cannock Chase and Morfe 
Common sheep around Shrewsbury, England, that gave impetus 
to the formation of the Shropshire breed. Wlien Southdown rams 
were bred to the old Wilts and Bants ewes in South England the 
initial step had been taken in the making of the Hampshire. Bake- 
well's Leicesters were used on the old sheep of the Cotswold Hills 



CROSS BREEDING 41 

and the outcome of this crossing was the modern Cotswold. The 
Hampshire when bred to the modern Cotswold produced the founda- 
tion from which the Oxford has been developed, and it is possible to 
continue, if necessary, with the enumeration of still other breeds that 
have had their beginning from a cross between breeds. 

Apparently promoters of such breeds were inclined to consider 
origin through crossing a discredit to the breed, for frequently they 
attempt to prove that they did not originate in this way. Presum- 
ably they believe that any breed which traces back to a cross will not 
breed as true to type as one developed by selecting and breeding 
together the best of a type or breed long common in a community, 
as was the case with the Southdown. But this view is not necessarily 
true. A type which midoubtcdly breeds true, as we understand the 
term, can be developed from animals resulting from crossing distinct 
Iirecds. It takes time, however, to do this because the hereditary 
material handed down by the original parents is capable of coming 
together in so many different combinations. Characters which 
seemingly have been eliminated reappear and breeders become dis- 
couraged over the behavior of the strain they are trying to " fix " 
so that it will be worthy of being called a breed. When Shrop- 
shires were first shown at the annual show of the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England they were markedly lacking in uniformity. 
This was in 1857, but 15 years or more before the close of the 
century they were breeding true to type, and when crossed on other 
breeds their characteristics were sufficiently impressed on the off- 
spring. What may be said of the Shropshire may also be said of 
other breeds that trace to a cross between breeds. 

One of the latest breeds to be developed from a cross is the 
Corricdale. In New Zealand three long-wool mutton breeds, Lni- 
coln, Cotswold, and Leicesters, were crossed on Merino ewes. The 
cross-bred animals were bred together and by eliminating the unde- 
sirable types a breed has been evolved in the last 30 or 40 years 
which is very popular with those New Zealand and Australian 
breeders who wish to grow sheep for both mutton and wool. 

In the western part of the United States cross breeding has 
helped sheepmen to solve the question of adaptability and at the 
same time to meet the demands of the market. It has been found, 
however, that mere crossing is a temporary expedient and that when 
regions as a whole adopt it there is no economical way to breed in 
order to get desirable breeding ewes. Therefore, western breeders 



42 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT 

are now casting about for a way to get breeds which possess the 
good points of the cross-bred animals they have been producing. 
Corriedales are being " tried out," and there is some tendency to 
develop a breed or breeds by a method similar to that pursued in 
evolving the Corriedale. 

Cross-breeding is still extensively practiced in England by 
breeders who plan to sell their lambs for mutton. It is likely, too, 
that it will be resorted to, to greater or less extent, in all countries 
recognized as being important in the production of mutton, be- 
cause the cross-bred lamb is. as a rule, unusually vigorous and in 
many regions breeders find it to their advantage to keep ewes of 
such breeding that a foreign breed must be crossed on them to get 
the best possible market lambs from them. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What part has better feeding had in the improvement of sheep? 

2. Enumerate the different methods of breeding by which improvement has 

been effected. 

3. What are the methods followed in mass breeding? 

4. What were some of the effects from the early study of matings? 

5. What can be said of the importance and limits of pedigrees? 

6. Explain the meaning of in-and-in breeding. 

7. Of line breeding. 

8. What may be some uses of cross breeding? 



PART II 

STRUCTURE AND JUDGING 



CHAPTEE V 

STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 

Position in the Zoological Scheme. — The following outline, 
according to Lydekker/ shows the position of the domesticated sheep 
in the subkingdom of Vertehrata: 

Subkingdom Vcrtebrata — Vertebrates, or Back-boned Animals. 
Class Mammalia — Mammals. 

Order Ungulata — Hoofed Mammals, or Ungulates. 
Suborder Artiodactyla — Even-toed Ungulates. 
Section Pecoiu — Typical Ruminants. 

Family Bocidw — Hollow-horned Ruminants. 
Subfamily Vaprince — Sheep and Goats. 
Genus Oins — Sheep. 

Species Ovis aries — The Domesticated Sheep. 

The Sheep a Ruminant. — The sheep chews its cud; that is, 
it brings its food back from the stomach to the mouth for thorough 
mastication. This characteristic distinguishes it as a true rumi- 
nant. It belongs to the family of ruminaiits termed Bovidcp, of 
which the ox (Bos) is a typical representative. Besides cattle and 
sheep the family Bovicla; includes such classes of animals as goats, 
muskoxen, chamois and antelopes, but sheep represent a distinct 
genus for which the name Ovis has been adopted, aud as a species 
the domesticated sheep has been given the name Ovis aries. 

How the Sheep Differs from Other Animals in Its Family. — 
Although very much alike in general structure the sheej) and ox 
present some interesting differences, the most marked being in size 
and nature of hairy covering. The sheep carries its head higher, and 
its cranium is relatively broader and higher at the center and much 
narrower toward the extremities. Instead of having a broad, naked, 
undivided muzzle like the ox, its muzzle is narrow, covered with 
short hairs, and divided by a vertical cleft. Owing to the fact that 
its muzzle is so much narrower and its lips more mobile, the sheep 
can graze much closer than the ox. 

' R. Lydekker, " The Sheep and Its Cousins," p. 12, Pub. by E. P. Button 
& Co., New York, 1913. 

45 



46 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 



Sheep are different from any other class of animals belonging 
to the family Bovidce in that they possess suborbital face glands, 
and glands in the groin and between the two main toes of the feet. 
All of these secrete sebaceous or fatty substances. The suborbital 
face gland is situated in a shallow depression called the lachrymal 
pit in the lachrymal bone of the skull. In the live animal its location 
is indicated by a furrow in the skin extending downward from the 
inner corner of the eye (Fig. 16). 




Fig. 16. — Furrow in skin over lachrymal pit. 

The secretion from the foot-gland or interdigital pouch is car- 
ried to the surface of the skin through a small duct called the inter- 
digital canal, the round opening of which is to be found near the 
top of the triangular depression on the front of the pastern, a little 
above the hoof (Fig. 17). This opening is large enough to be 
seen easily with the naked eye and is often referred to by sheepmen 
as the hole in the foot. 

Different functions have been ascribed to the foot glands. It is 
thought by some that they secrete a substance that scents the ground 



THE SKELETON 



47 



over which sheep pass and thus assists members lost from the flock 
to trace their fellows. It is also thought that the secretions are 
waste products which if not eliminated will cause inflammation and 
lameness. The likelihood of plugging the hole in the foot and thus 
preventing the escape of the secretions is regarded as one important 
reason why sheep should not be made to walk through mud. 

In sheep, the foot glands are present in all four feet. They are 
usually absent in goats, but sometimes small glands appear in the 
fore feet. 




Tig. 17. — The interdigital pouch. (From "Sheep and Its Cousins," Lydekker. Courtesy 
of E. P. Button & Co.) 



The Skeleton.- — The vertebrae forming the spinal or vertebral 
colunni are grouped as follows: T cervical, 13 dorsal or thoracic. 6 
to T lumbar, 4 to 5 sacral, and 3 to 24 coccygeal. The last are not 
])erfect vertebra^, as the spinal canal does not extend through them 
(Fig. 18). 

With the exception of the cervical vertebrge all of these groups 
vary in the number of bones they contain. There are usually 13 
vertebra in the thoracic group, but occasionally there are 14, and 
more rarely, only 13. In the lumbar group the occurrence of 7 
vertebrae is almost as frequent as 6, but the reduction to 5 seldom 
takes place. Seyffurth indicates that there may be 4 or 5 sacral 

- See Sisson, " The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals," 1914. 



48 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 



vertebrse, but Sissoii recognizes only 4. With the exception of the 
last vertebra, these are fused into one bone in the adult animal. 
The number of coccygeal vertebrae present largely determines the 
length of the sheep's tail, and that this number varies is apparent to 
any one who has handled a large number of lambs before their tails 
have been cut off. 

The Ribs. — Ordinarily the sheep has 13 pairs of ribs, 8 pairs 
being sternal or true ribs, -f pairs asternal or false ribs, and one 
pair floating ribs. True ribs are distinguished from false ribs by 
the fact that the cartilaginous bars extending from them articulate 
with the sternum or breast-bone, while those of the false ribs over- 
lap and are attached to each other, forming what is known as the 




Fig. 18. — Skeleton of sheep. (Courtesy of Wm. R. Jenkins Co.) 

costal arch. The cartilages extending from floating ribs are unat- 
tached. Sometimes there are 14 pairs of ribs, in which case the 
fourteenth rib is also floating. 

The sternum, or breast-bone, is composed of 7 segments (some- 
times only 6) and there are indentures in the sides for the reception 
of the cartilages extending from the ribs. 

Effects of Variations in Skeletal Structure. — No attempt will 
be made to describe the bones of the skull and of the thoracic and 
pelvic limbs because the chief object of discussing the skeleton in 
this connection is to show how the external form may be influenced 
l)y differences in those regions of the skeleton subject to variation in 
number of parts. Undoubtedly many sheep which are relatively 
longer than others have more than the average number of vertebrae 



EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN SKELETAL STRUCTURE 49 

forward of the coccygeal group. When a sheep is unusually long 
in the middle, speculation as to whether it possesses an extra rib is 
quite justifiable, and if the space between the last rib and the junc- 
tion of the ilium (hip bone) with the spine is abnormally wide there 
is basis for assuming that there is an extra vertebra in the lumbar 
group. If, on the other hand, the sheep has a short middle and if 
the space from the last rib to the hip is also. very short, it may be 
that the lumbar vertebrae are reduced to 5 in numl)er (Fig. 19). 




FiQ. 19. 



'It shcijp, illustrating ll.._ ij- 'j,.^,\ 
vertebrae in the spinal coluiiiii. 



Aside from the variations noted, little is known of how much 
sheep vary in skeletal arrangement. Judging from exterior form, 
some individuals seem to carry a wider and higher arch to their 
ribs than others, but just how much of the difference is due to 
thickness of flesh and fat, and how much to the actual shape of the 
ribs has not been definitely determined. The processes extending 
u[)ward from the vertebrse in the region of the shoulders seem longer 
in some sheep than in others, or else the top of the blade is set lower 
down, for in certain instances the spinal processes are so prominent 
that any amount of fattening will not cover the shoulder top. In 
practically every improved breed there are occasional specimens 
4 



50 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 




riQ. M — Hump well carried out. 




Fia. 21. — Rump drooping. Variation between Figs. 20 and 21 probably due to differ- 
ence in skeletal position of sacral vertebrs. 



THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES 



51 



having low-set tails and sharply drooping rumps. Surely the sacral 
and coccygeal vertebrae and probably the pelvic bones are not in the 
same position in these specimens as in those whose rumps carry out 
almost level to the dock from the surface between the hips. And 
there can be no doubt as to the variation in the shape, position, 
relative length and size of the leg bones (Figs. 20, 21, and 22). 




Fig. 22. — Showing variation in length of leg bones. 

The Skin and Its Appendages. — The skin of sheep varies in 
extent, thickness and color. According to Sisson, the variation in 
thickness is from one-half to three millimetres. In Merinos there 
is a great expanse of skin due to numerous wrinkles and folds, and 
as a rule their skin is thick, thus making a great weight of pelt in 
proportion to body weight. In the English mutton breeds, be- 
cause the skin covers the body smoothly, the weight of pelt is rela- 
tivelv less. Earns have considerably thicker skins than ewes of the 
same breed. 

In all improved breeds producing white wool except those with 



52 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 



very dark faces and legs, the skin, if healthy, is bright pink or 
cherry in color, but in the exceptions noted and in sheep bearing 
dark wool it is often bluish and in some cases almost black. In 
nearly all breeds the naked skin around the muzzle is black. 

The skin ^ consists of the cutis or skin proper and its epidermal 
appendages, the hair, wool, hoofs, and horns. The cutis is com- 
posed of two layers, the epidermis, a superficial epithelial layer. 




Fig. 23. — Diagrammatic section of skin, showing (a) shaft of hair arising from the 
follicle, (6) sebaceous glands and (c) sweat glands. (From "Structure of the Wool Fi- 
bre," Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.) 

and the derma or corium, a deep, connective-tissue layer, which is 
supplied with blood vessels and nerves and contains glands and 
hair-follicles. 

The hair-follicle is a modification of the skin and, according 
to Sisson, may be regarded as an invagination or a folding-inward 
of the epidermis. It seems, however, that the follicles of the larger 
human hairs contain both epidermal and dermal elements* (Fig- 
23). 

The hair originates at the bottom or base of the hair-follicle 
from an extension of the corium called a papilla, to Avhich the 

'See Sissoti's "Veterinary Anatomy," 1911. 
* Bailey, "Text Book of Histology," 1916. 



THE HAIR 53 

materials necessary for the growth of tlie hair are supplied. Being 
a development of the epidermis, the hair is composed of epithelial 
cells, and these are arranged in three layers. From within outward 
these are medulla, cortex and cuticle (Fig. 2-i). 

Bailey gives the following description of these la.yers: 
(1) "The medulla occupies the central axis of the hair. Tt is 
al)sent in small hairs, and in large hairs does not extend throughout 
their entire length. It is from 16 to 20 m.^ in diameter, and con- 
sists of from two to four layers of polygonal or cuboidal cells with 




Fig. 24. — Longitudinal section of a human fiair. (From "Structure of the Wool Fi- 
bre," Bowman. Courtesy of Macmillan Co.) 

finely granular, usually pigmented protoplasm and rudimentary 
nuclei. 

(2) " The cortex makes up the main bulk of the hair and con- 
sists of several layers of long spindle-shaped cells, the protoplasm 
of which shows distinct longitudinal striations, while the nuclei 
appear atrophied. As these striations give the hair the appearance 
of being composed of fibrilla? the term ' cortical fibers ' has been 
applied to them. In colored hair pigment granules and pigment 
in solution are found in and between the cells of this layer. This 
pigment determines the color of the hair. 

(3) " The cuticle has a thickness of about 1 m. and consists 
of clear, scale-like, non-nucleated epithelial cells. These overlap 
one another like shingles on a roof, giving to the surface of the hair 
a serrated appearance." 

° i\I. refers to a micron which is 1/1000 of a millimeter in lenjith, and 
the millimeter is 0.03937 part of an inch. 



54 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 



Structure of Wool. — ^The structure of wool is similar in many 
respects to that of hair. Both grow from hair follicles in the skin ; 
both are nourished in the same way; both consist of epithelial cells 
arranged in three layers, but the medullary layer m:ay be absent in 
wool. The striking and essential difference between them is in the 
cells forming the outer layer or cuticle. In hair these cells are 
rather rounded in form and smooth along the edges, while in wool 
they tend to be j)ointed and irregular along the edges." In the hair 
the overlapping cells are attached to the under layer up to the very 

25 26 




Fig. 25. — Coarse hairs, showing regular scales unsuitable for interlocking or felting. 

Fig. 26. — Typical wool fiber, showing irregular scales. Such fibers felt easily. (From 

"Structure of the Wool Fibre," Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.) 

margin of the cell, while in wool they are free for about two-thirds 
of their length and they turn slightly outwards. Because of their 
shape, position and manner of attachment to the cells beneath, the 
cuticle cell of wool fibers will interlock, but those of hairs will not 
to any marked degree. It is this property of interlocking, called 
felting, that makes wool so much more valuable than hair in the 
manufacture of fabrics (Figs. 25 and 26). 

As a rule wool is smaller in diameter than hair, and in white 
wool, as in white hair, there is little if any pigment or coloring 
matter in the cortex layer. Wool is also more wavy than hair, 
the waves in the finer wools being so short and distinct as to be 
called crimps. 

Function of Wool. — Wool is a protective covering for the 

animal. The cuticle cells point outward from the skin and serve 

to keep out foreign substances such as dirt and chaff. Sheep with 

fairly dense, oily fleeces are less subject to colds than those having 

"Bowman, "Structure of the Wool Fibre," 1908. 



GLANDS 01' THE SKIN 55 

more open fleeces. The reason for this is that the wool is a non- 
conductor of heat and hence protects against variation in tem- 
perature, and when it is dense and oily it prevents the rain from 
penetrating to the skin. 

Variations in Hairy Covering. — With the exception of the 
Barbadoes breed, all of the domesticated breeds in the United 
States are covered with wool over all parts sa\e the head, legs, arm- 
pits and groins. In nearly all of these breeds wool extends partly 
over the head and legs, and in the Merinos it is not uncommon for 
it to grow over the surface of the armpit and most of the groin. 

Breeds exhibit marked variation in length, fineness and density 
or thickness of wool. Density may vary from 600 to 1500 fibers 
to each square inch of skin ; fineness from one three-hundredth or 
more to one three-thousandth of an inch in diameter ; and length 
attained in twelve montbs from less than one inch to fifteen inches 
or more. As a rule the shortest wool is the finest and densest. 
White wool prevails among the domesticated breeds of the United 
States and of other countries giving special attention to the pro- 
duction of wool, but the color of the hair on face and legs varies, the 
most common shades being white, reddish brown, light soft brown, 
and deep brown or black. In various parts of the world there are 
domesticated breeds, in most cases not highly improved, however, 
that grow gray, brown and black wool. 

Wool is rarely if ever uniform in length, fineness and density 
over all parts of the sheep. The finest and densest wool is in the 
regions of the shoulders, about midway between the top and bottom 
lines of the body; the coarsest wool grows on the outer thighs and 
at the dock ; and the shortest wool is to be found on the belly. 

The horns and hoofs are modifications of the epidermis. Most 
of the modern breeds are hornless ; in a few breeds only the males 
have horns, and in a few others they appear in both sexes, but the 
males always have them much more strongly developed than the 
females. Males unsexed while young resemble the females of the 
breed in the degree of development of the horns. Hoof tissue and 
also horn tissue, if present, are white only in those breeds in which 
the naked skin at the muzzle is pink. 

Glands of the Skin. — The sweat glands, secreting water and 
potassium salts, and the sebaceous glands, secreting a fatty or oily 
substance, are the most important glands in the skin. Their com- 
bined product, less most of the water secreted liy the sweat gland, is 



56 



STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 



the yolk. This functions in various ways as a preservative of the 
wool. The sweat glands are distributed throughout the skin, but 
the sebaceous glands are usually connected with the follicles and 
they pour their secretion around tlie wool fibers just beneath the 
surface of the skin. It is said that there is no relation between the 





^^^•5^/ Sac of p,' ' 



Fosh dorsal 
blind 3ac 







Pylorus 



FiQ. 27. — Stomach of sheep; right view. ("Anatomy of Domestic Animals," Sisson. Cour- 
tesy of W. B. Saunders Co.) 

size of the gland and the fiber connected with it, the smallest fibers 
often being associated with the largest glands. Also, the thicker 
the fibers on the surface of the skin, the greater the number of 
glands. These observations suggest why the wool of Merinos is 
more oily than that of breeds bearing coarser, less dense wool 
(Fig. 23). 



THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 



57 



The Digestive Tract. — Teeth. — Sheep grow two sets of teeth; 
the first or temporary teeth uumber 20, and the second or perma- 
nent teeth number 32; of the permanent teeth, 8 are incisors, 12 





Rumen 
venttal Sac 



Posterior- 
i/entral 
blind 5ac 




Fia. 28. — Abdominal vise I ; 'I'l superficial \(MitrMl view. , Anatt 

Aninials," .Sisson, W. B, f>auuder3 Co.) 



of Domestic 



premolars and 12 niolar.>;. There are no teeth in the front part of the 
upper jaw in either lam])s or slieep, but instead a cartilaginous pad, 
on which the incisor teeth of the lower jaw impinge. As a rule, the 



58 STRUCTURE OF THE SHEEP 

lamb has some of its teeth when it is born, and by the time it is a few 
weeks old it has all of the temporary set. The permanent teeth 
begin to replace the temporary teeth when the lamb is about one 
year old. More will be said about the teeth in the next chapter in 
connection with the indications of age in sheep. 

Stomach. — The stomach has four compartments : the rumen, 
the recticulum, the omasum, and the abomasum. The first three, 
of which the rumen is by far the largest, serve as places for storing 
and softening or macerating the food, while, the fourth, the aboma- 
sum, is the compartment in which most of the digestive processes 
characteristic of the stomach occur. According to measurements 
made by the writer, the capacity of the stomach of a fat sheep 
weighing from 175 to 180 pounds is about 21 quarts. Sisson, 
however, gives it as 16 quarts, and Henry and Morrison as 31.3 
quarts. Based on Henry and Morrison's figures, the capacity of 
each of the various compartments is as follows: Eumen, 24.7 
quarts; reticulum, 2.1 quarts; omasum, 1 quart; abomasum, 3.5 
quarts; the total being 31.3 quarts (Fig. 27). 

Intestines. — As given by Henry and Morrison, the small in- 
testine of the mature sheep is about 85.9 feet long and has a capacity 
of 9.5 quarts; the large intestine is approximately 21.4 feet long 
and has a capacity of 5.9 quarts. Digestive processes take place in 
both the small and large intestines (Fig. 28). 

QUESTIONS 

1. What distinguishes the sheep as a ruminant? 

2. How does it differ from the ox : from all other classes of animals be- 

longing to the family Bovidce? 

3. Enumerate common variations in the skeletal arrangement of sheep. 

4. How may variations in skeletal structure affect the form of the sheep? 

5. How are wool and hair different in structure? 

6. To what extent do sheep vary in hairy covering? 

7. How many temporary teeth have sheep? Permanent teeth? 

8. What large glands pour their secretions into the digestive tract of 

sheep? 

9. What is yolk in wool; where does it come from? 

10. Of what advantage is the rumen or paunch to wild sheep? To domestic 

sheep ? 

11. Gently pressing a wool fiber, draw it back and forth between the thumb 

and forefinger. Can you distinguish which way the cuticle cells 
are pointed? 



CHAPTER VI 
THE NATURE OF SHEEP 

The Life of a Sheep. — Most sheep are fully grown at eighteen 
to twenty-four months of age. The manner in which they are fed 
has some influence on their rate of development; sheep that are 
forced by heavy feeding may at one year of age show indications of 
being two years old. As a rule, the Merino breeds are later in devel- 
oping than the mutton breeds, Irat whether this later development is 
altogether a breed characteristic is not wholly clear. The method 
of growing Merinos generally in vogue may be different enough 
from that employed in growing the mutton breeds to cause some 
of the difference in rapidity of development. But the early im- 
provers of the mutton breeds apparently sought early maturity 
more persistently than the early improvers of the Merinos. It is, 
therefore, only fair to assume that the mutton breeds are disposed 
to develop at a more rapid rate. 

In general, sheep are old at five or six years of age. But there 
are many exceptions to this rule, so many, in fact, that the flock- 
master ought to be his own judge as to when his sheep are old. On 
the ranges in the western part of the United States where the flocks 
are very large, it is common practice to discard ewes when they 
become five or six years old solely on account of their age, because 
tliey usually begin to decline in yield of wool after their fiftli year. 
But the owners of small flocks can afford to base their discarding on 
a study of individuals, for not infrequently seven- and eight-year- 
old ewes when members of a small group, produce quite as well or 
even better, than younger ewes. 

Unfavorable environment and improper care, exposure, and poor 
feed often hasten the approach of old age. In dry, sandy countries, 
sheep may become old at a comparatively early age through the teeth 
being worn down short by the excessive amounts of sand both in and 
on the vegetation. Then, too, a scanty supply of feed on the range 
may require the sheep to do so much travelling when it is not ade- 
quately fed that physical decline sets in prematurely. 

It frequently happens that sheep which have become too old for 
one set of conditions are moved into more favorable surroundings 

59 



60 



THE NATURE OF SHEEP 



where they jDrove j^rofitable for two or three more years. In England 
and Scothmd ewes which are too old to be kept in the hills where 
feed is rather scarce, are often moved into the lowlands where there 
is an abundance; here they thrive and produce two or three crops 
of lusty lambs, and are finally fattened for market. 

Sheep normally inclined to develop slowly do not, as a rule, 
begin to break down until well along in years. Thus the Merino 
breeds are perhaps longer lived than the mutton breeds. Un- 
doubtedly, longevity of life has its advantage, Init the usefulness of 
a breed cannot he determined on this alone. 




Fig. 29. — Old sheep; prominent Shropshire prize winners when in their prime. They 
were each eleven years old when photographed. Their lean necks and general lack of flesh 
were due to advanced age and not to poor care. 

Indications of Age. — (1) Teeth. — One of the best indications 
of the age of a sheep is the teeth. The temporary or lamb teeth 
are small ; the permanent teeth are broader and longer. If a lamb 
develops normally, the two temporary teeth in the middle of the 
front part of the lower jaw are replaced by permanent teeth at 
about twelve months of age. Therefore, when a sheep shows two 
broad teeth with small teeth on either side, it is an indication that 
the animal is a yearling; if there are four broad teeth, that it is 
two years old; if there are six, that it is three years old. At four 
or five years of age all of the eight temporary teeth in the front 
part of the jaw are likely to be replaced by permanent teeth and it is 
impossible to determine the age with any degree of accuracy. 

It should be borne in mind that the teeth indicate the degree of 



INDICATIONS OF AGE 



61 



I ™ 



>6S 






CO 



5.0 o O 

o ■ P (n 



n - a. 

? ■ s 

I — la r 



< p m 
re crto 



MO 



— » 5. 

01 g B » 
S o 2 S 



o 2--! 3- 

P ~B O 

ft -hP P 

i-h2 "^ S) 
C3o <->■ ^ 









SgSg 







62 



THE NATURE OF SHEEP 



development rather than the absolute age of the sheep in calendar 
months ; hence, they are not infallible indications of age. If devel- 
opment is slow, the first permanent teeth may not appear until the 
sheep is fifteen or sixteen months old ; if it is rapid, they may appear 
at ten months of age. A yearling sheep that has been forced by 
heavy feeding may have four broad teeth in front instead of two 
(Fig. 29). 

The teeth of an old sheep are likely to be spread apart, missing, 
or worn down short. Other indications of advanced age are a 
sunken appearance over the eyes, a comparatively short fleece with 
sunken places on the surface, and a general lack of fullness of body 
outlines (Fig. 30). 

(2 ) The Break Joint. — On our large livestock markets, an index 

often depended upon for 
determining whether an ani- 
mal belongs in the sheep or 
lamb class is what is known 
as the '' break joint.'' This is 
the temporary, or epiphyseal 
cartilage located immedi- 
ately above the pastern joint. 
Without it bones could not 
elongate and hence it is pres- 
ent until the lamb is pretty 
well along in body develop- 
ment. It can be distin- 
guished best on the live ani- 
mal by rubbing up and down 
on the foreleg just above the 
pastern joint with the tliumb and forefinger. If temporary cartilao-e 
has not disappeared, a great deal of prominence will be felt; If 
it has, the bone will be comparatively round and smooth (Fig. 31). 
Feeding and Drinking Habits.— Being ruminants, sheep are 
adapted not only to the consumption of grain, but also of bulky 
feeds, such as grass and hay. They eat all of the grasses except the 
very coarsest varieties and are very fond of the cultivated legum- 
inous plants. They eat most of the Aveeds common to farms, and in 
the West, weeds on sheep ranges are considered very valuable feed. 
Sheep feed on young tree growth more than any other of our domestic 
animals except goats. 




Fig. 31.— (a) The break joint; when an imma- 
ture sheep is slaughtered its forelegs are severed 
at this joint — its presence being a sure indication 
that the animal was young. (6) The regular articu- 
lating joint below the break joint; the forelegs of 
mature sheep are severed at this joint. 



FEEDING AND DRINKING HABITS 



63 



Sheep prefer short herbage on an extensive range to a rampant 
growth on a limited area. When placed on a tall i)lant growth 
they nip off the ends of the plants and trim off the leaves, but usually 
leave the stems standing. They are structurally adapted to feeding 
on short herbage, because of their very mobile lips and sharp incisor 
teeth. The upper lip is very mobile, which is in part due to the 
vertical fissure in the center which permits one-half of the lip to 
move somewhat independent of the other half. 




Fig. 32. — The paths or terraces to the left and high up on the hillside were made by sheep 
while grazing. (From Morris and Kirby, Chinook, Montana.) 



The inherent love which sheep have for change of feeding 
ground is well known, and is always plainly indicated in the eager 
and playful way in which they feed just after they are turned into 
a fresh pasture. 

It is thought that the native home of the domesticated sheep was 
in the high, treeless plateaus and mountains. Most sheep especially 
enjoy feeding on the high places in their pastures, but some of the 
modern breeds have been kept on low, level lands so long that it is 



THE NATURE OF SHEEP 



doubtful whether they would take to the hills from ehoiee. It is 
interesting to note how sheep feed on hills. In a hilly country, 
where sheep are grazed in large numbers, the traveller is sure to 
see along the hillsides many sheep paths which look like little 
terraces, indicating that in grazing, the sheep do not pass over the 
hill, but rather along the side, gradually working to the top 
(Fig. 33). 

Sheep are able to exist without water longer than most domes- 
ticated animals. Craig says that this is probably due to the fact 
that they have unusually large salivary glands; very likely it is 
also due in part to still other physiological characteristics. It has 

often been thought that sheep 
do not need to have daily access 
to water, but such an assumption 
i^ erroneous, for even in cold 
woather they will drink from two 
to four quarts daily. They pre- 
fer running to still water. 

Folding Habits. — S h e e p 
that have been allowed to choose 
between shelter and the open, 
prefer to lie out of doors on high 
places. This may not be true, 
however, of sheep that have been 
raised in barns. Their prefer- 
ence for high, well-drained, and 
airy resting and sleeping grounds 
is very marked, for it is only in the severest of winter w^eather that 
they abandon such spots for lower, wind-protected places. After 
the land) is a few hours old it constantly seeks some eminence, 
such as its mother's back, a bale of hay, a log, or a rock. It has 
been observed that young sheep seek high places more readily than 
do the older ones ; yearlings will feed higher up on a hillside than 
old ewes (Figs. 33 and 34). 

Breeding Habits. — Most domesticated breeds of sheep are 
monoestrous. That is, the ewes come in heat (oestrus) in but one 
season of the year, which, in the United States, is in the autumn and 
early winter months ; hence, it is not possible to have lambs born at 
any time in the year. But there are a few breeds, such as the Tunis 
and Dorset Horned, for which it is claimed that the ewes will breed 







^^-^^ 



Fig. 33. — The little Iamb aspires for heights 
affording wider outlook upon the world. 



BREEDING HABITS 



65 



to produce lambs at the time desired by tlie owner. Such breeds 
are especially useful to those who desire to grow fancy lambs out of 
season in order to supply a high-priced commodity to a limited 
few. If, as it seems, ewes are induced to a certain extent to come in 
heat by the cool of the autumn nights, it may be that there are 
localities in which climatic conditions will cause ewes to breed out 
of their normal season and perhaps twice a year. Sunmier nights 
in the hills may correspond to the autumn nights on the plains and 
by moving ewes from the plains to the hills, one may succeed in 
breedinof them out of normal season. 




A ewe remains in heat for a])Out two days ; if she is not bred, or 
if she fails to get in lamb from the service of the ram, the period of 
heat, or oestrus, recurs in approximately sixteen days. On this point 
there is variance of opinion and some writers mention twenty-one 
days as the length of time between oestrus periods. In the IMiddle 
West of the United States, however, the intervening time, although 
varying all the way from twelve to twenty-eight days, is most often 
sixteen days. In case the ewe is not bred, she is likely to recur in 
heat regularly for three or four months, beginning in late summer 
or early autumn and continuing until late December. 

About one hundred and forty-six days is the normal gestation 
period for ewes. At the Illinois, Wisconsin, and Ohio Stations, it 
5 



66 



THE NATURE OF SHEEP 



has been observed that the period of gestation for Rambouillet and 
American Merino ewes is more frequently one hundred and fifty-two 
than one hundred and forty-six days. And one hundred and forty- 
four days has been given as the normal period for Southdowns. 
From this it would seem that breed may be the cause of some varia- 
tion in the length of the period of pregnancy. 

It is common for each ewe to give birth to one or two lambs. 
Occasionally a ewe has three lambs at one parturition period, and 
there are instances of even more, but since the ewe has but two 
teats that function (in rare cases there are four), she is not well 




Fig. 35. — A capacious, matronly type of ewe capable, as the photograph shows, of taking 
good care of a pair of lambs. 

prepared to take care of more than two lambs. By carefully select- 
ing parent stock, promoters of certain breeds have succeeded in 
developing e"'e stock having a marked tendency to produce twins 
(Fig. 35). 

Recognition of Young. — A ewe recognizes her new-born lamb 
wholly through the sense of smell, but in a few days she can dis- 
tinguish it at sight. In cases of perplexity, however, she always 
relies on her nose for recognition. Apparently the odor by which a 
ewe identifies her newly-born offspring is due to something coming 
from her, for in case she refuses to own her lamb she may be in- 
duced to receive it (but not always), by placing some of her milk 



GREGARIOUSNESS 



67 



on its rump, the point where she usually sniffs at the lamb to 
recognize it. 

Gregariousness. — Sheej) have the gregarious instinct; that is, 
they like to keep together. The flocking instinct is not so pro- 
nounced in some breeds as it is in others, but there is no breed or 
variety known that does not possess it. Of the well-known breeds, 
the j\Ierinos have this trait most strongly developed, for, as stated 
in Chapter I, they stay close together whether grazing or resting. 
On range where herding is practiced this statement applies to the 
whole of a large hand. On the other hand, nearly or quite all of 




Fig. 36. — Following the leai 



(By courtesy of The Country Gentleman, Philadelphia.) 



the English mutton breeds are less inclined to stay close together 
while grazing. Flocks of any of the mutton breeds seem to prefer 
to spread out over a rather large area while feeding, yet if some- 
thing frightens them, as the bark of a strange dog, they show their 
gregarious instinct l)y bunching up as fast as they can. One of the 
breeds least inclined to close flocking is the Black-faced Highland, 
a mountain breed of Scotland. In their native country, one may see 
the hill or mountain sides dotted with small groups consisting of 
from three to ten of these sheep picking at the heather, apparently 
oblivious of their flock-mates more than half a mile away. 

The flocking instinct is so strongly implanted in sheep that when 
an individual is separated from the flock, it is an indication that 



68 THE NATURE OF SHEEP 

something unusual has happened. The first thought of the trained 
shepherd when he sees a sheep alone and some distance from its 
mates is likely to be that it is ill or has been injured. 

The instinct to flock in large numbers is of great value where 
herding is practiced, as in the western part of the United States. 
In extensive, unfenced, and undeveloped lands any herder would 
lose large numbers from his band through straying and through the 
attacks of predatory animals if his sheep were not disposed to con- 
tinue in a rather compact body. 

Closely associated with the gregarious instinct of sheep is its 
instinct to follow a leader. There is an old saying, " Where one 
sheep goes, all others will follow," which really is not an exaggera- 
tion. If the leader passes on, the others will take a chance on a 
long leap, a narrow path, or even a plunge into the water in order 
to follow (Fig. 36). 

Timidity and Defenselessness. — In the presence of foes sheep 
are sadly lacking in ability to defend themselves and they become 
so frightened that they run wildly hither and thither. Although 
they fear all animals disposed to prey upon them, their worst 
enemies are the wolf and kindred animals, such as the coyote, the 
dog, and the jackal. The jackal furnishes trouble for the sheepmen 
of South Africa; the dingo, a wild dog, makes depredations on flocks 
in Australia, and the wolf and particularly the coyote, seriously 
handicap sheep raising on the western ranges of the United States. 
In farming communities the f[og is the worst hindrance to the keep- 
ing of flocks. While any of these animals may kill outright, their 
attacks are almost as deadly if they only chase and bite because the 
sheep are badly frightened and run so hard that a physical break- 
down is likely to follow. In case they are bitten, death may result 
from infection of the wound. Other predatory animals in the 
western part of the United States are the bob-cat and mountain 
lion. In New Zealand and Australia the kea (a parrot-like bird) 
often attacks sheep on the back in the region of the kidneys. 

Being easily stampeded by fear, sheep really encourage dogs 
to chase them, for if a dog full of vigor and eager for exercise, but 
with no intention of mischief, enters a field where sheep are feeding 
or resting, the entire flock may dash away at top speed at the sight 
of him. Their action stirs the dog to the depths of his desire for 
the chase, and he is after them in what he considers a rollicking 
good game, but it means disaster to the owner of the sheep. 



QUESTIONS 69 

Horned breeds of sheep are said to be less afraid of their enemies 
than hornless breeds. Strong, masculine rams are also more 
aggressive and somewhat less afraid than ewes; but spirited ewes 
with lambs at side will defend their young. Both ewes and rams, in 
their attempt to scare away the enemy, have a habit of vigorously 
stamping the forefeet. 

Non-Resistance to Disease. — Sheep do not show much evidence 
of illness until they are very sick, and this is perhaps the reason for 
the oft-repeated statement, "A sick sheep is as good as dead." A 
careful and observant shepherd, however, takes many a sick sheep 
in hand in time to save it and any sheep raiser to be successful must 
learn to discover that something is wrong with his sheep before they 
are "as good as dead." Certain breeds apparently resist disease 
better than others; hence it seems probable that general hardiness 
may have been more or less disregarded in the development of 
some of our modern breeds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Can you tell how a healtliy sheep acts when it is separated from its 

fellows? A sick one? 

2. Why are the attacks of predatory animals so injurious to sheep? 

3. Do you know what parts of the sheep's body are most frequently bitten 

by dogs? 

4. By what may the age of a sheep be estimated? 

5. Compare the period of growth in sheep with that in man. 

('». Can you give reasons why sheep select high, well-drained places for 
sleep atid rest? 

7. Do sheep prefer extensive or liniited range? 

8. How do they graze over hills? 

9. Do you know how a goat grazes over a hill? 

10. In what seasons are lambs born in tlie Unitetl States? 

11. How many lambs can a ewe conveniently nurse? 

12. What proportion of lambs to ewes have you observed? 



CHAPTER VII 
TYPES 

The term type as applied to sheep is used in various ways. 
Breeds developed primarily for mutton are grouped under the 
mutton type, and those developed especially for wool belong under 
the wool tyi3e. As regards development for mutton and wool, a 
few breeds are dual in type, but the term dual-purpose type has 
not yet been widely applied to sheep. An acceptable specimen of a 
l)reed possesses what are termed breed characteristics. These con- 
stitute breed type and serve to distinguish the specimen from indi- 
viduals of other breeds and of no breed. Sexes differ in other char- 
acters than sex organs, so there is what may be termed sex type. 
There exists a market type which coincides in most respects with 
the mutton type, but, because of special emphasis laid on certain 
points, is somewhat different. 

The Mutton Type. — The ideal type, which is sought in all of 
the prominent mutton breeds, consists of a relatively broad and 
deep body and such a development of head, neck, legs and body 
parts that the whole conformation suggests symmetry, thickness, 
compactness, and quality. This is regarded as the most suitable 
type for producing growth and finish economically and for yielding 
the kind of carcass the consumer wants (Fig. 3T). 

Head. — As between the different breeds, the head varies more in 
shape and size than any other part of the animal, but in general it 
is short and wide, and its various features are developed and pro- 
portioned so as to suggest hardiness and strength. The mouth is 
large ; the nostrils are well expanded ; the eyes are large, round and 
bright; the nose is short, rather wide, and varying in profile from 
slightly dished to pronouncedly Roman, and both the eyes and the 
ears are wide apart. The ears harmonize in size and quality with 
the other features of the head and are set so as to contribute to 
the carriage and style characteristic of the breed to which the animal 
l)elongs. 

The neck, though free from coarseness, is strongly muscled and 
joined neatly to both the head and shoulders. It is comparatively 
straight underneath from the junction with the jaw to the brisket, 
70 



THE BODY 



71 



and there is no depression on the top just in front of the shoulders. 
Breeds differ with respect to length and set of neck, but in general 
a short neck is preferred provided it carries the head stylishly. In no 
case should the neck be placed so that the head is carried lower than 
the top of the body. 

The body, consisting of the fore quarters, hind quarters, and 
middle or barrel, possesses lines and dimensions which indicate sub- 




Fig. 37. — The mutton type — wide, deep, compact, evenly developed in form. 

stance, capacity, and vigor. It is broad, deep, and of medium 
length and its lines are comparatively straight. Low and full flanks 
and a short space between the last rib and the liip contribute to the 
thick, compact appearance of the body. 

The fore quarters, which include the shoulders and the brisket, 
fit up smoothly with the neck in front and with the middle behind 
them. The shoulder blades come snug to the spine and level with it, 
thus forming a smooth, compact, wide lop wliich is covered with 



72 TYPES 

llesh and fat. The sides of the shoulder also are well covered and 
free from prominence of bone. The brisket is wide, full, and extends 
well in front of the legs, and its anterior contour is rounding rather 
than pointed. In fat sheep there is no depression between the brisket 
and the lower part of the shoulder. 

The parts forming the middle or barrel of the body are the ribs, 
back, loins, and flanks. The ribs are long and widely arched, a con- 
formation that gives pronounced width to the back, which extends 
from the shoulders to the loins, and also forms a deep, wide, 
capacious chest indicative of stamina and constitution. The back 
extends from the shoulders to the last ribs and the loinsi from the 
last ribs to the hips. Besides being wide and level, both are covered 
with firm flesh and fat to such an extent that the processes of the 
spine are scarcely noticeable to the touch. Since the back and loins 
contain valuable cuts, their extreme development is always sought. 
The floor of the body is wide and slightly convex. 

The parts of the hind quarters are hips, rump, thighs, and 
twist. The hips are level, wide in proportion to the width of the 
body, and free from prominence at the points. The rump, which 
extends from the hips backward, is long, level, wide, and thick at 
the dock. Sheep with this conformation of rump produce more 
mutton, and the ewes have slightly less trouble in giving birth to 
their young than those with peaked or drooping rumps and with 
low-set tails. The thighs, which join the rump a few inches below 
the top line, are full and wide at the top, while down toward the 
liocks they stand out boldly, indicating sturdiness and strength. 
The twist, formed by the meeting of the thighs at the rear of the 
body, is wide, low, and relatively firm to the touch. If the rump, 
thighs, and twist are not well developed, a leg of mutton from the 
carcass cannot be first class in form nor up to proportionate weight. 

The legs, both in front and behind, are straight, strong, free 
from coarseness at the joints, and placed far apart, with the pasterns 
strong and the toes neither close nor sprawling. In front the arm 
is full and heavily muscled. Behind, the hocks are straight and 
placed so that they neither bow outward nor come in close to each 
other. In a ram, particularly, either sickle-shaped or badly placed 
hocks are serious faults because they are likely to render him in- 
capable of service. 

Quality, — Although some of the mutton breeds have large, 
strong bones and rather large, bold head features, quality receives 



THE WOOL TYPE 



73 



important consideration in each and every breed. In all cases coarse- 
ness, as characterized by rough legs with large joints, fat heads and 
faces, coarse, staring hair on the face and legs, and soft tallowy 
flesh, is to be avoided. 

Skin, Wool. — In general, pink skins of fine texture are preferred 
because they indicate health, (|uality, and disposition to make good 
use of food. The wool of the mutton breeds varies greatly in length 




^'?t>t'-'^T^'^^S^-,%>^ v^^lfe- 






Fig. 38. — The extremely developed wool type — with large wrinkles on ail parts of the 
body the pelt (skin and wool) of this sheep constitutes a large per cent of its total weight. 

and fineness, but in all breeds clean, white wool free from kemi) 
and dark fibers is sought after. 

The Wool Type. — Fineness, density, and weight of fleece have 
been the prime o))jects of those who have developed the wool-ty]ie 
breeds and in these particulars breeds of other types do not equal 
them. Because of dissimilarity in form, skin, and wool, the extreme 
wool type is markedly difl'erent in appearance from the mutton 
type of sheep. But increasing consideration is being given to muttoj) 



74 TYPES 

form and quality in breeds belonging to the wool type; hence the 
difference between the two is not quite so pronounced as it once 
was (Fig. 38). 

Comparison with Mutton Type. — As compared with the mut- 
ton type, the wool type lacks in straightness or evenness of lines, 
fullness of outline, and disposition to lay on a great deal of external 
fat. It is common for the spine to project considerably above the 
shoulder blades, for the back to sag slightly, for the ribs to be flat, 
and for the rump to droop sharply. Often, the body as a whole 
lacks in width or thickness, the ribs being rather flat, the shoulders 
thin, and the thighs hollow. Since the floor of the body lacks width, 
the legs in most cases are close together and frequently very close 
at the knees and hocks. As a rule, the face of the wool type is pro- 
portionately longer than that of the mutton type and the same 
can be said of the neck. Less stress is laid upon the smooth junction 
of neck and shoulders and frequently there is a depression in the 
neck just in front of the shoulders. Although sheep of the wool 
type differ so much from the mutton type in form, they are neverthe- 
less hardy, and quite as carefully bred for what they are intended as 
any of the breeds belonging to the mutton type. 

Folds and Wrinkles. — In the wool type there are usually parts 
of the body on which the skin forms wrinkles or folds, thus giving 
proportionately more surface on which to grow wool than in the 
mutton type. Sometimes the wrinkles extend over nearly all parts of 
the body, Imt there is an increasing tendency to eliminate them al- 
most altogether from the body proper and to permit of only a few 
large wrinkles or folds on the neck and perhaps one on the body just 
l)ehind the shoulders and one or two more at such places as the 
thigh, dock, and rear flank. Although high-class specimens possess- 
ing very many wrinkles are still rather numerous the owners of 
commercial flocks are finding less and less use for them, and unless 
demand changes so as to make the production of wool relative to 
the production of mutton much more profitable than it has been 
during the past two decades the preference for smooth bodies will 
continue and it will sooner or later prevail in determining type. 

Breed type is determined by considering, in connection with the 
general ty])e to which the sheep belongs, the standard adopted for 
the particular breed in such matters as size, style or carriage, general 
quality, color of skin and hair, size and shape of head, length of 
legs, and the wool with respect to length, fineness, and extension 



SEX TYPE OR SEX CHARACTER 75 

over various parts. ^^'lR'll a shet'i) is judged as a representative of a 
breed it should not be i"avoral)ly eonsidered if it is very poor in 
either general type or breed type. Jn a breed belonging to the mut- 
ton type, such as the Shropshire, an individual having a bare, nar- 
row, sagging back should not be rated high no matter how nearly 
perfect it may be in those features characteristic of the Shropshire 
breed. On the other hand, should it be perfect in mutton type, but 
markedly deficient in features pertaining solely to the Shropshire 
breed, it should not receive favorable consideration as a Shropshire 
sheep. And a fault in breed type may be such as to disqualify an 
animal as a breed representative. No enlightened judge would per- 
mit a sheep with a pure white face to take a place in a ring for 
Shropshires because the typical face color for this breed is deep, 
soft brown. 

The general type and the breed type are inseparable and a 
problem constantly arising in judging is to know just how far per- 
fections in the one recompense faults in the other. It is easy for 
the student fresh in the study of judging sheep to ask such a 
question as how much should the shape of head be sacrificed for 
filling at the twist, but only a few, if any, of long experience would 
attempt to give him a definite answer. 

Constitution is weighted most when considered in connection 
with breeds, and is, therefore, closely associated with breed type. 
To properly estimate constitution the whole make-up of the sheep 
must be considered. Were a low-headed, wobbly-gaited, flabby sheep 
])('rfect in spring of rib and extension of brisket, it would not be 
rated high by a competent judge because he would know that such 
a specimen is lacking in stamina. C^ompactness of build, strong, 
wcll-])laced legs, large, firm muscles, wide loins, and a jn-operiy 
molded head are quite as important in determining constitution as 
a deep, wide chest. 

Objectionable Points. — In considering breed type it is very 
necessary to know what supporters of the breed are trying to get 
rid of. Dark skins are discriminated against more in some breeds 
than in others; kemp (structureless fibers) is very objectionable in 
the fleeces of the fine wool breeds, and vestiges of horns are not tol- 
erated in certain breeds. 

Sex Type or Sex Character. — Whenever a sheep is judged as a 
breeding animal, the develo]mient of certain of its features, aside 
from sex organs, should clearly indicate the sex to which it belongs. 



76 TYPES 

This development is known as sex cliaracter or sex type; in rams 
it is called masculinity and in cwos femininity. 

Pronounced masculinity is indicated by boldness and ruggedness 
of head features ; strong, thick neck, massive development in the 
fore quarters ; a proud, stylish, active, and bold carriage which 
suggests domineering disposition. In general, a ram with a truly 
masculine head has a fairly large mouth; big, round, well-expanded 
nostrils; a pronounced spread of nose (commonly called the knob) 
just above the nostrils if the animal is mature; wide-open, bright, 
prominent eyes; and pronounced width between the eyes and ears. 
The strongly masculine neck sets to the shoulder so that the head 
can be carried well up. The neck is very thick at the junction with 
the shoulders, so thick, in fact, that there is scarcely any depres- 
sion between it and the shoulders. On the top of the neck just 
behind the liead there is usually a rise or prominence which really 
appears more like a feature of the head than of the neck. Comment 
on the massive development in front is hardly necessary, but per- 
haps it is well to call attention to the full, strong forearm which 
should accompany the wide, deep chest, and the full, rounding, well- 
extended brisket (Fig. 39). 

In order to have an active, bold, or fearless carriage, the ram 
must have a deeply-muscled body supported by strong, well-placed 
legs. When one touches a ram possessing outstanding masculinity, 
there is the sensation of having in hand an individual with the 
fibers and sinews of a giant. The study of such an animal is never 
finished, for there is something present which defies accurate meas- 
urement with the hand, and the whole make-up of the animal sug- 
gests something which is beyond the estimate of the eye. 

No ram is really masculine if his sex organs are not well de- 
veloped. Undersized testicles indicate sex weakness, and when they 
are less than normal size the animal is usually lacking in strength 
of features about the head. English shepherds often comment on a 
ram having a deep bleat as a sheep with a real ram's voice. In the 
breeds in which the males have horns, the development of horn 
should be in harmony with the other features of strength about 
the head. 

Importance of Masculinity. — Experienced breeders usually 
select rams showing much masculinity because they believe such in- 
dividuals will impart more vigor and transmit their characters to 
their olfsjjring in greater degree than rams that are weak in mas- 



IMPORTANCE OF MASCULINITY 



77 



^ 



is 

3 '^ 




78 TYPES 

culinity. Several years ago, while visiting various pure-bred flocks 
in Great Britain, the writer was greatly impressed by the unusual 
masculinity of most of the stud rams he inspected. It seemed to 
him then, as well as now, that the English sheepbreeder places higher 
value on masculinity than the American breeder. This is a matter 
to which American breeders should give careful consideration, with 
a view to determining whether they or the British breeders are 
more nearly right. 

Femininity is manifested by refinement of features, matronly 
appearance, and relatively great development in the hind quarters. 
All of the above characteristics combine to produce an effect which is 
quite the opposite of that produced by masculinity. The truly 
feminine ewe has proportionately less substance in her neck and 
front of body than the masculine ram, her features are much less 
rugged and her body lines are more gracefully turned. But the 
refinement characteristic of femininity is not over refinement to the 
point of delicateness. At this point the breeder needs to exercise 
care. Strong bone, provided it shows quality, size of body, or 
roominess, with features to match do not necessarily indicate lack in 
femininity, but rather that very essential development of characters 
which should be associated with it (Fig. 40). 

Mild expression has often been spoken of as indicative of femi- 
ninity in ewes. If this term implies meekness and submissiveness, 
then it is wrongly applied, because the desirable breeding ewe pos- 
sesses vigor and snap. She is upheaded, alert and conscious of what 
is in progress around her almost to the point of appearing to be 
nervous. She may be of retiring disposition so long as she is not a 
mother, but with her young at the side she is courageous and stands 
l)etween her young and what she senses as danger with defiant 
fearlessness. In parturition such a ewe is very nervous, apparently 
so anxious to see her lamb that she cannot wait for it to come : 
but when it does come she usually not only protects it, but also feeds 
it well. 

Successful breeders discard masculine or " staggj^ " ewes because 
usually they are not profitable as producers. Often they do not 
breed at all. When they do, they may have trouble in lambing; 
and they are usually poor both in maternal instinct and milking 
properties. 

Wethers (castrated males) if imsexed when only a few weeks 
old, tend to resemble ewes in the various characters influenced by 



IMPORTANCE OF MASCULINITY 



79 




80 



TYPES 




Fig. 41. — A wether. Not so strongly developed in the head and neck as a ram, but coarser 
in these features than a ewe should be. 



sex. But a wether cannot be ,said to possess femininity; in fact, 
it is decidedly unconTplimentary to a ewe to say that she looks like 
a wether. That is, the wether retains a little of the masculine in 
his various features (Fig. 41). 

Market Type. — The mutton type approximates closely the mar- 
ket type. But in fat sheep -the market puts more stress on condi- 




PiQ. 42. — Market sheep carrying the degree of f; 

mutton. 



b}' .Viiieiican consumers of 



QUESTIONS 81 

tion, quality, and weight than on form. Market quality consists in 
freedom from coarseness and from undue weight of pelt (skin and 
wool combined), while in the mutton type a heavy fleece is not 
necessarily a criticism against quality. Ideal market condition 
requires an even, firm covering with fat, but it does not call for 
excessive fatness such as is expected of breed specimens and fat 
wethers in classes for single sheep at large exhibitions. The fact is 
that show specimens are often made too fat. The weight desired of 
market sheep is a matter, that varies with the different classes, 
lambs, yearlings, wethers, and ewes ; it is also a matter that varies 
somewhat with the different seasons (Fig. 42). 

In selecting feeder sheep, condition, quality, weight, form, and 
thrift are the factors to be considered. The ideal feeder should not 
be fat, neither should it be so thin as to seem lacking in vigor and 
health. Its quality should corres^pond with that of the fat sheep 
and it is best in form when it corresponds to the description of form 
given under mutton type, but perfection of form cannot be ex- 
pected in a sheep that is not fat. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which is easier to determine, general type or breed type? Why? 

2. List the large differences between the mutton type and the wool type. 

3. Which would grade the higher on tlie market, the wool type or the 

mutton type? Why? 
4 Compare the head of a ram with that of a ewe of the same breed. 
5. How are tlie differences noted to ))e accounted for? 



CHAPTER VIII 
JUDGING SHEEP 

Preparation for Judging. — Kegarclless of whether judges are 
born or made, skill in judging sheep is attained at the expense of 
much practice. The men who judge best are nearly always at it, 
not in the arena, of course, but wherever they see sheep. It is this 
irresistible tendency constantly to compare and contrast animals 
that builds up in the mind of the judge a rich store of experiences 
which serve him well, and in fact come to his rescue when he is 
making awards where competition is keen and close. These ex- 
periences mold his standard and set it out in bold relief. Organized 
class study, although of great help, is after all only one step toward 
proficiency in judging. It is a step which many of the best judges 
liave never taken, and one which is not used to proper advantage 
unless it is supplemented by extensive practice in field and fold 
(Fig. 43). ^ 

Examining the Sheep. — Capable judges, realizing the impor- 
tance of careful examination, first look the sheep over from a dis- 
tance and then go over it with their hands. It does not make any 
difference which view of the animal is noted first so long as the 
examination is thorough and systematic. The writer prefers to 
begin with the front of the sheep, then observe its sides, and lastly 
its rear, for the reason that in handling he examines the rear first. 

Looking the Sheep Over. — Following this plan, there are cer- 
tain points which should be noted from each view. 

(1) The front view gives the best opportunity to study the 
make-up of the head, the width and depth of brisket, and the 
length, shape and placing of the forelegs. Very close attention 
should be given to the head because its quality is Indicative of the 
quality of the animal and in breed specimens it reveals a great 
deal of what is known as breed type. The stamina or constitu- 
tion of the animal is also indicated in the way certain features 
of the head are developed. 

(2) Side. — In taking a side view, the size, style, and general 
lines of the sheep attract attention first. Then comes an analysis 
of the general impression thus gained which takes note of the 

82 



LOOKING THE SHEEP OVER 



83 



length and depth of body, the carriage of the head, the length and 
.ettino- of the neck, the extension of brisket, the evenness or tnie- 
ne'^s of top and bottom lines, and length and shape of legs, and 




Fig. 43.-The external parts of a sheep. 1 muzzle broad l.ps thm nostrils large 
2, face short, features clean-cut; 3, eyes large and -^lear; 4 forehead broad 5 ears 
and not coarse; 6, poll wide; 7, top of shoulder coi«P%\ ^ ^ » "eck short th^ck me g 
smoothly with shoulder; 9 ^houlder thickly covered with A^^ ^0 back b o s ^^^^^ 
thickly and evenly covered; 11, ribs long, well sprung, and th ^klj ^oj^ and wide to dock; 
thick, and well covered; 13. hips wide and smooth; H, rump long level, and |*>de ^ ^o 
15 dock thick; 16, twist deep and firm; 17, thighs full, deep, ^"d^vide 18 legs straignt 
short, and bone smooth; 19, cod or purse in aethers, scrotum ,n rams udder in e«e ,^^^^ 
flank full and deep; 21 forelegs straight, short and strog^ 22 chest^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^_ 

23, forelegs wide apart and forearm strong; 24, brislcet luu anu luuiiu & 
breast well extended. 

lastly, the relation of neek, shoulder, middle, and rump, in turn, to 
total length. 



84 



JUDGING SHEEP 



Sample Score Card Useful as Beginning Step in Judging 

MUTTON SHEEP MARKET 



SCALE OF POINTS 



Perfect 

Score 



Student Score 



Corrected Score 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— 37 per cent. 



1. Weight, pounds 

2. Form, straight top and underline; deep, 

broad, lowset, compact, symmetrical. . . . 

3. Quality, hair fine; bone fine but strong; 

features refined but not delicate; pelt 
light . 

4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh. 

Points indicating finished condition are: 
thick dock, thick covering over loin, back, 
ribs and shoulders, fullness between 
shoulder and brisket 



HEAD and NECK— 9 per cent. 

5. Head, features clean cut; mouth, large; lips, 
thin; nostrils, large; eyes, large, clear; 
face, short; forehead, broad; ears, alert, 
not coarse, considerable width between 



6. Neck, short thick, full at junction with 
shoulder 



FORE QUARTERS— 10 per cent. 

7. Shoulders, covered with flesh; compact on 

top, smoothly joined with neck and body 

8. Brisket, rounding in outline and well e.\- 

tended 

9. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong, 

full forearm, bone smooth 



BODY— 18 per cent. 

10. Chest, wide, deep, full . . . . 

11. Ribs, well sprung, long, close and thickly 

covered 

12. Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly 

covered 

13. Loin, thick, broad well covered 



HIND QUARTERS— 17 per cent. 
14. I'ips, far apart, level, smooth. 



1.5. Rump, long, level, wide to dork thick at 
dock 

16. Thighs, full, deep, wide: 

17. Twist, plump, deep, firm 

IS. Legs, straight, short, strong, bone smo th . 

WOOL — 9 per cent. 

19. Quantity, long dense, even in density and 

length 

20. Quality, crimp distinct and even through- 

out fleece . ■ 

21. Condition, slight amount of yolk, foreign 

material not excessive 



15 



Total . 



STUDENT. 
DATE 



HANDLING THE SHEEP 



85 



(3) Bear. — From the rear the width and evenness in width of 
body are to be noted ; then the development of rump, thighs and 
twist, and the placing of the hind legs. 

Handling the Sheep. — After surveying the animal in this sys- 
tematic manner tlie judge is ready to verify his visual impressions 
by handling. This is necessary because the wool may cover defects 
in form and handling is the only sure way to determine the amount 
and quality of flesh. In the show ring it is a common practice to 




way t<i iiK'asuie tlif a 



Aith thr liiit^crs tot^ethcr is tlie best 
luiit and ijuality (it tiesh. 



trim the wool in order to conceal defects in form. Then, too, the 
wool and skin should be inspected at close range (Fig. 44). 

The proper way to handle a sheep is to keep the fingers together 
and lay them down flat on the animal except where it is necessary 
to grasp the parts, as is the case with the lower thighs. This 
manner of handling gives the most accurate impressions and does 
not disarrange the -wool. C^orrect touch is a matter of study. The 
hands should be laid on deliberately and firmly, but without undue 
pressure, and pounding or clawing are entirely out of order. At 
the same time the judge must keep his mind with his hands, com- 
paring the information they give him with the impression he 



86 JUDGING SHEEP 

already has of the animal. If he really has his mind on just what 
he is doing there is no possible excuse for anything but a correct 
touch (Fig. 44). 

After looking the sheep over as is suggested here, the logical 
place to begin handling is at the rear, and a right-handed judge 
should stand on the left side of the sheep. 

(1) The Rear, Including ThigJts, Twist, Doch, and liump. — 
The first thing to investigate with the hands is the development of 




Fig. 45. — Left hand on back of thigh, right hand at rear flunk to measure the 
lower thighs. 

the lower thighs. This is done by putting the left hand at the 
back of the thigh and the right at the rear flank ( Fig. 45 ) . In this 
way the amount of flesh on both the outer and inner thighs can be 
ascertained. Next, the right hand should press upward on the 
twist to estimate the amount and firmness of flesh at that point. 
The development of the upper thighs is determined by placing the 
hands flat on them and pressing the hands toward each other. In- 
stead of doing this, many judges press one hand against the thigh 
while resting the other on top of the rump (Fig. 46). 



HANDLING THE SHEEP 



87 



After finishing with the thighs, the judge may either examine 
the rump or pass one hand along the entire top of the sheep to get 
an idea of its levelness and covering. The first movement in judg- 
ing the rump is to grasp the dock with one hand and note its size 
and fullness. A wide, thick dock is taken to indicate deep, strong 
muscling along the spine (Fig. 4!)). A good 'filling of fat on either 
side hetween the dock and the rump indicates high condition ; hence 
a great deal of importance is attached to this part of the investi- 
gation. The next thing is to determine the width at the hips and 




Fig. 46. — Determining the amount and firmness of the filling at the twist and the depth 
from the top of the rump to the lower boundary of the twist. 

the evenness with which this width carries back. Tliis is done hy 
2>ressing one hand on. either side of the rump from the hip points 
to the dock (Figs. 47 and 48). 

(3) The Middle, Including Loin, Bad', and Ribs. — The loin is 
examined for width and thickness by placing one liand straight 
down on either side of it. This movement is often difficult for be- 
ginners, who are unable to hold the hands straight and who have 
considerable difficulty at first in correctly estimating width. Ex- 
perienced judges often get an idea of width and thickness of loin by 
reaching across it with one hand. The covering of loin is judged 
by placing the fingers flat over the spine and noting whether the 



38 



JUDGING SHEEP 
Fig. 47 




Fig. 48 

Fio. 47. — Pressing the upper thighs between the hands. 

Fig. 48. — Pressing the rump between the hands to note how the rump carries in width 
from the hips to the dock. 

bones are prominent or cushioned over with flesh and fat. 

The back may have been examined already for levelness and 
covering, but re-examination will do no harm. Width of back, a 
good point in any breed, seemS' to depend mainly on long ribs, 



HANDLING THE SHEEP 



89 



arching high and wide as they leave the spine, and special atten- 
tion should be given to the degree of arch, or rather of width, just 
hack of the shoulders (Fig. 51). There are two ways of ascertaining 
this: First, place the fingers of the hand on one side of the spine 
and the thumb on the other ; or, second, place one hand on either 
side of the spine. The spring of the last rib should also be noted 
carefully as the width of a properly shaped barrel or body increases 
gradually from the shoulders back to the last ribs (Fig. 50). 

In addition to l)eing long and arching well, the ribs should be 
covered with firm flesh and fat, and the spaces between the ril:)s 




Fig. 49. — A wide dixk; ;i luurow dock. A wide dock iuditateb deep muscling along the 
spine; a dock well cushioned over with fat indicates that the animal is in high condition. 

sliould l)e well filled and firm. These points can be determined by 
rubbing the hands back and forth over the ribs. If they are 
prominent to the touch and if the flesh and fat are soft, the covering 
is poor in Ijoth extent and quality. In examining the ribs the 
hands should also be placed over the fore fianks to proximate the 
width of chest (Fig. 52). 

(3) The Front, Including Shoulders, Chest. Brisket, Neck, and 
Head. — By placing one hand on top of the shoulders it is possible to 
learn how compactly the shoulder blades are set up against the 
spine and how well these parts are covered with flesh (Figs. 53 and 
54). Next, the hands should be placed first on the sides of the 
shoulders to examine the depth cf flesh, then they should be moved 



90 



JUDGING SHEEP 

Fig. 50 




Fig. 51 

Fig. 50. — Examining the loins for width and depth. 

Fig. 51. — A hand on either side of the spine just back of shoulder to note whether the 
ribs spring high and wide from the spine. 

forward to the neck vein to determine whether the neck blends 
smoothly with the shoulders as fullness here indicates both high 
condition and well-muscled neck. The lower points should next be 



HANDLING THE SHEEP 



91 



touched to note whether or not the bones are unduly prominent and 
coarse. Finish or high condition is estimated by phicing the hands 
just in front of the lower points where the brisket joins the lower 
part of the shoulders. At this point there is a noticeable depression 
in the thin animal which is scarcely discernible in the fat one. One 
hand should be ]>assed on down to the floor of the brisket and chest 
to examine width. By keei)ing the other hand on the top of the 
shoulders, a notion of the deptii of chest can be gained. The front 




Fig. 52 



i^ liitr iiiliiLir^ 



ilic liljB to determint ilie (.kijil 



d iirniness of covering. 



of the brisket should be touched for the purpose of getting an idea 
of its extension and contour (Fig. 55). 

A good way of determining the setting and size of the neck is to 
grasp it on top, with one hand, just in front of the shoulders at the 
neck vein. With the thumb on one side and the fingers on the other, 
a good idea can be gained of its fullness, both at the top and on the 
sides. A similar grasp should be made just behind the ears to 
ascertain whether the neck is coarse or smooth where it joins the 
head (Fig. 56). 

It is not necessary to handle the head much, l)ut in woolly- 
headed ])reeds handling helps in estimating the width of head, and 



92 



JUDGING SHEEP 




K ■ 


fe =* 




J3 a> 


W'* ""■ < 


■ 1^ 


f^t^J 


I'^t 




C 03 


p'' < ' » 


OT) 


Vx^^*. 


■^ aj 


>'? 


c-2 


:■-.' 





HANDLING THE SHEEP 93 

touching the various features assists in (leterniiiiing quality. In 
judging rams of tlie hornless breeds, it is always advisable to place 
the fingers in the horn holes to note whether there is any growth of 
horn. Most judges practise parting the lips and looking at the 
teeth for the i)urpose of estimating age. This is necessary even 
though the teeth do not proximate age closely. AVhilc handling the 
head it is a good thing to examine the eyes closely. 

(4) Fleece and SJiin. — After the conformation of the sheep has 
l)een determined, the fleece and skin must be examined. Since the 
best wool grows on the side of the shoulder or just behind it, the 
fleece is first opened in that region. This should be done by laying 
the hands down flat on the surface of the fleece and gently forcing 
it to part so that the density, qualit}^, color, luster, and condition of 
the wool,^ and the color of the skin can be noted (Fig. 57). 

Similar examination should be made at mid-side and on tbe 
thighs in mutton breeds, and in wool breeds at the points mentioned 
and wherever else the judge deems necessary, but especially along 
the spine, at the hip point, dock, and on the belly. In breeds in 
which dark fibers in the wool and dark spots on the skin are likely 
to be present, the fleece should also be parted on the top of the head 
just behind the ears, on the fore part of the shoulder, and just above 
the hocks. 

(5) Noting Defects. — In connection with the handling of rams 
it is advisable to note whether the scrotum is normally developed. 
Occasionally the testicles are very small. When this is the case, the 
features about the head usually lack masculinity. Again one testicle 

^Density of fleece is determined wlien the wool is parted. The smaller 
the amount of skin exposed the denser the wool. Or density can be esti- 
mated fairly well by jifraspinj^ a portion of the lleece between the thumb 
and fingers; if the wool feels compact and lills the hand well, it is likely 
to be dense. (^)uality of fleece is indicated by the waves or crimps in the 
wool fibers. If these are short, carry regularly from tlie skin to the outer 
tips of tlic fibers, the wool is fine and even in quality. Luster is a 
factor in the quality of luster wools. It is a Ijrightness, similar to 
tliat of polished metals and its presence depends on the size and shape 
of the cuticle cells or scales forming the outer layer of the fibers. It is 
most marked in the longer, coarser wools, and least in the fine, short wools. 
Condition of fleece refers to color, yolk, and the foreign material in the wool. 
To be in good condition t'le wool should be bright, not dingy; it should 
be practically free from dirt, chafl, and burrs; and the yolk should be 
evenly distributed. 



m 



JUDGING SHEEP 










HANDLING THE SHEEP 



95 



Fi(i.57 




Fig. 58 

Fig. 57.— Examining the wool and skin. , . , . , .... e. a uu t * 

PiQ 5s — Detcctins overdone condition which is characterized by solt, Habby tat 
that can be shifted by pressure with the hand. 



iiiav be abnornitally small or not let down in the serotuni sack. Such 
defects are to be discriminated against largely according to their 
intensity. The testicles may be so small that the judge feels con- 



96 JUDGING SHEEP 

fident that the ram is not a hreeder, in which case he should not 
he awarded a prize. In judging ewes, it is well to examine the 
udder. If it is hard or otherwise defective some discrimination 
should he made. There are also such defects as large, lumpy 
growths under the throat, which hecause the wool is trimmed 
closely or because it hangs over them in large mases as in the long- 
wool breeds, may not be discovered except by handling. Wrinkles 
under the throat in breeds not supposed to have them are often so 
well concealed by close trimming that they can be discerned only 
by touch. 

Soft, blubbery fat, due to " overdone " condition, often escapes 
the notice of beginners in judging. There are two places on the 
body where this fat is present in largest quantity; namely, on the 
fore ribs and on the rump. A good way to get an estimate of this 
soft, blubbery fat is to place one hand near the top of the animal 
and the other lower down and push them toward each other. In 
the United States and Canada it is not customary to award a prize 
to sheep in badly "overdone" condition (Fig. 58). 

The judge should always know the sex of the animal he is 
examining. 

Faults of Beginners. — Beginners especially possess the fault of 
viewing too little and handling too much. Before getting a good 
impression of the animal they pounce upon it and begin to handle. 
Defects easily discovered by viewing may be entirely overlooked. It 
is hard for the beginner to understand wliy viewing before handling 
is of importance, because many experienced judges appear to lay all 
of the em])hasis on handling, l)ut the old judge sizes the animal up 
c|uickly and he is soon ready to see whether handling will confirm 
liis impression of it. 

QUESTIONS 

1. From what view can you best determine whetlier a sheep has strong 

or weak pasterns? Sickled hocks? Sprawling toes? 

2. From viewing how would you determine whether a sheep has a narrow 

chest ? 

3. Describe the difference in feel between a bare and a well-covered back. 

4. Determine the difference in width between a wide and a narrow sheep. 

5. Handle a sheep carefully along the top and determine whether the wool 

is uniform in length at all points. 

6. Handle two sheep over the ribs and describe the difference you note. 

7. Write up a comparative study of the heads of two sheep, noting differ- 

ences in ears, eyes, profile of face, nostrils, moutli, widtli between 
ears, and between eyes. 



PART III 

BREEDS 



CHAPTER IX 
THE MUTTON BREEDS 

All of the niuttun l)ree(l.s kept in the Viiited States, excepting 
the Tunis and Oorriedale, were developed in Great Britain. Be- 
ginning with Bakewell the era for evolving these breeds covered 
almost a century. Koughly speaking, they were evolved from two 
general types. One of these wa'^ a large, coarse, slow-maturing sheep, 
growing long, coarse wool and yielding a fleece weighing from seven 
to twelve ])oun(ls. With the exception of a few dark s})ots, the black 
hoofs and black skin aronnd the nostrils, its face and legs were white. 
It was kept principally »>n the low fertile lands in the counties ol' 
l^incoln, Leicester, and on the hills of Ciloucester. The other type, 
being .smaller, was suited to the hills and lighter soils. It grew 
short, fairly fine wool and pi'oduced a fleece weighing from two to 
live pounds. Some strains had black faces and legs; others were 
white in their markings, and still others had speckled or gray faces 
and legs. As a rule the sheep belonging to the smaller type were good 
travellers and were adapted to herding on the commons or downs 
in fairly large numl)er,s. A rather common practice was to fold 
them on the arable land at night in order to get the manure for field 
crops, and to drive them, several miles out during the day to feed 
on the downs. 

From the large, coarse-wool ty])c such breeds as the nioilern 
English Leicester, the Border Leicester, Cotswold, Lincoln, Komney 
]\Iarsh, Devon Long Wool, South Devon, and Wensleydale have been 
developed. From the smaller type producing short and fairly fine 
wool we have secured most of the down breeds, .such as the South- 
down, Shropshire, Hampshire, Suffolk, and also such breeds as the 
Dorset Horn and Ryeland. In a few cases a breed has been de- 
veloped by crossing improved sheep descended from each of the old 
types. A notable case is that of the Oxford Down, produced by 
crossing the Hampshire with the Cotswold. 

British breeders are thoroughly grounded in the belief that dif- 
ferent environments demand different types of sheep. In their 
o]iinion sheep adapted to the lowlands are not profitable in the hills 
and on the mountains. And the soils in regions of simalar elevation 

99 



100 



THE MUTTON BREEDS 




( } 








QUESTIONS 101 

may be so different as to demand different types. Consequently 
many breeds have been developed as is indicated ])y the fact that 
twenty-five breeds, all native of Great Britain, have been given a 
place in the premium lists of the annual show of the Royal Agri- 
cultural Society of England (Fig. 59). 

(QUESTIONS 

1. Why were so many difTereiit breeds developed in Great Britain? 

2. When did Bakewell live? 

3. Was he interested in other classes of livestoek besides sheep? 

4. Make a list of the breeds of sheep kept in the United States. 

5. Which were developed in Great Britain? 
(). ^^'here were the otiiers developeil? 



CHAPTEE X 
THE SOUTHDOWN 

History. — Of the widely distributed improved mutton breeds, 
the Southdown, next to the Leicester, is the oldest. John Ellman, 
who lived in southeastern England near Lewes, Sussex County, on 
the hills known as the South Downs, began to improve the old 
Southdowns or native sheep of Sussex in the latter half of the 
eighteenth century, and Arthur Young, who saw this flock in 177G, 
pronounced it the best in the country. Forty-five years later (1821) 
Jonas Webb, living 100 miles further north in a more fertile country, 
near Cambridge, purchased Ellman sheep and further improved 
them. Although other men had something to do with the improve- 
ment of the Southdown, most of the credit for developing it to its 
present state of mutton perfection is usually given to Ellman and 
Webb (Fig. 60). 

The Southdowns are low, chalky hills which Ellman described 
as being twenty-six miles long and five miles wide. In his day about 
one-half of the land was arable and the other grass land. Wheat, 
oats, barley, clover, vetches, or tares, and roots were some of the more 
common crops cultivated, while the grass land grew a short, fine, 
sweet herbage. The vegetation which was not rampant was better 
suited to a small active breed such as the old Southdown was than 
to a larger, heavier breed. Ellman most likely recognized this fact 
and probably it had some weight in his choice of the stock he 
selected for improvement. He took note of the hardiness of the old 
Southdown, of its ability to thrive when the land was heavily 
stocked ; of its fine fleece ; and of its good leg of mutton. On the 
other hand, he clearly saw its two worst faults, an ill form and a 
light fleece. 

The Old Type. — As a type the old Southdown was small, with 
long, slim neck, light fore quarters, bowed back, narrow body, low- 
set tail, coarse bone, and thick leg of mutton. The fleece, though 
fine, was short, thin, and did not extend over the lower parts of 
the body. In face and leg markings there were variations ranging 
from white-brown mottled to solid deep brown or almost black. 
102 



IMPROVEMENT BY ELLMAN 



103 



Improvement by EUman. — Long before EUnijaii began his work 
there was a widespread conviction amongst sheep raisers on the 
Southdowns that fine fleeces and ill forms were closely associated, 
and hence that in order to grow fine wool ill-formed sheep had to be 
tolerated. But Ellman did not believe this and he proposed to 
make out of the old Southdown a better sheep by improving both 
its form and fleece. In connection with the improvement of mut- 
ton form he also sought more fattening power and quality with 
respect to the percentage of olfal in dressing. He rapidly attained 




Fig. 60. — Southdown ram exhibited by Robert McEwen, Byron, Ontario. The thick, 
compact body, combined with the quality denoted by the trimness about the head are 
characteristic of the breed. 

considerable improvement and, so far as is known, entirely by selec- 
tion, although it is probable that the selections he made resulted 
in inbreeding or line l)reeding. He selected the best for his pur- 
pose wherever he could find it, but always within the native Sussex 
breed. He fixed a type which was shorter in neck, thicker in fore 
quarters, more nearly level on top, wider sprung in the rib, and 
])etter in fleece with respect to length, quality, density and exten- 
sion than the original stock from which he started. 

Mr. Ellman's career as a breeder extended over a period of 54 
years or more. In 1829 he dispersed his flock of about 1400 head. 
He died in 1832, 



104 



THE SOUTHDOWN 




DESCRIPTION 



105 



Improvement by Webb. — Mr. Webb, who carried on the im- 
2)ro^■enlent of Southdowns from the point where EUniaii left it, 
studied matings closely and never allowed price to keep him from 
l)nying the best rams. Being in a country where the soil was more 
fertile and where the liking for large sheep was more pronounced 
than in Mr. Ellman's region, he bred for more size. He practically 
perfected the breed as regards mutton conformation and quality. 




FiQ. 63. — Southdown ewe bred and exhibited by Robert McEwen, Byron, Ontario. 
This ewe, shown'at leading fairs in Canada and the United States in 1915 and 1916, was 
defeated but once. 



Fortunately he lived to reap the fruits of his good work, for his 
ram lettings and sales became noted events in the world of animal 
l)reeding. He was also very successful in the show ring and, being 
of persuasive personality, he did much to popularize the breed. His 
flock was dispersed in 18(32 at a meinoral)le auction sale (Figs. 61 
and (i3). 

Description. — Form and Weight. — The Best specimens of the 
present-day -Southdown closely approximate the ideal mutton type 



106 THE SOUTHDOWN 

in form. The body, which is oval on top, is wide, deep, low set and 
evenly covered with deep, firm flesh. The neck is short, thick, and 
placed to the shoulders so that the head is carried just a little above 
them. The legs are placed far apart, thus giving to the body width 
at the bottom about equal to that at the top. The arch of rib, the 
smoothness at hip and lower shoulder point, the fullness at fore- 
arm, thigh and twist suggest a rotund rather than a rectangular 
conformation. A comjDact, symmetrical block of mutton fittingly 
summaries Southdown form. Mature rams in breeding condition 
weigh from 185 to 220 pounds; ewes from 135 to 155 pounds. 

Features.— The features are neither refined nor coarse, but are 
developed to harmonize with those of the body. The mouth and 
nostrils are fairly large and the lips somewhat thick as compared 




Fig. 64. — Southdown ewes bred by the University of Illinois. Note the width and comp&ci.- 
ness, both typical of the breed. 

with the development of other features. In ewes the profile of the 
nose or face is slightly dished ; in rams it is almost straight. The 
eyes are large, round, bright, and prominent, suggesting alertness. 
The ears are short and erect, giving an expression of smartness. 
The legs are short and straight. As a rule the bone of the fore legs 
is a little more nearly round than in the other mutton breeds 
(Fig. 63). 

Marlnngs, Wool, and Skin. — The color of face and legs varies 
from light steel gray to a light soft brown, frequently referred to as a 
mouse brown. The face should not approach black in color nor be 
speckled with white. Clear, pink skins are preferred, as sheep 
having dark skins are regarded as hard feeders. The weight of 



HARDINESS AND FEEDING QUALITIES 107 

fleece ranges from 5 to 8 pounds and in twelve months it attains a 
length of about two inches. In addition to covering the neck it 
extends as clean white wool over the head to form a cap on the fore- 
head and a covering on the cheeks, but it does not extend down over 
the face much below the eyes. Below it extends to the knees in front 
and to the hocks behind. Frequently a downy, incipient growth of 
wool runs down on the hind legs to the pasterns. 

Disqualifications. — The English Flock Book publishes the foL 
lowing reasons why judges should not at breeding stock shows award 
a prize to otherwise good sheep : 

(a) Horns or evidence of their presence. 

(b) Dark poll. 




Fig. 65. — Southdown lamba bred by the University of Illinois. These lambs won 
first prize in the competition for pen of four Southdown lambs at the 1917 International 
Live Stock Show, Chicago. 

(c) Blue skin. 

(d) Speckled face, ears, and legs. 

(e) Bad wool, probably meaning decided departures from typical 
Southdown wool (Fig. 64) 

Properties. — The Southdown is preeminent among mutton 
breeds for the quality of its mutton. It is famous for the fine-grain, 
firmness and juiciness of its lean and for the whiteness, flakiness 
and sweetness of its fat, which is not excessive in amount. Whether 
it is consumed as baby lamb, ordinary lamb, or mature mutton, these 
(lualities are present to the satisfaction of the most exacting epicure. 

Hardiness and Feeding Qualities. — On the whole the South- 
down is considered hardy, but it is not adapted to the rigorous con- 



108 



THE SOUTHDOWN 



ditions under which some breeds are able to live. At birth the 
lambs weigh about eight pounds and, as a rule, they are strong, 
active, eager for feed and disposed to grow from the start. Both 
the mature sheep and the lambs take kindly to all well-known sheep 
feeds and they are especially fond of grazing on pasture grasses, 
to which they are perhaps somewhat better adapted than to luxuriant 
forage crops. Under average conditions with respect to feed and 
shepherding, it is characteristic of the mature sheep to remain plump 
and in good condition through practically all seasons, and the 
lambs early attain plump form and a firm, ripe condition which 
give them distinction as a prime baby lamb product. The lambs do 
not attain weight as rapidly, however, as do those of some of the 




Fig. 66. — Grade Southdown lambs bred by I niversity of Uliiiois. The granddanis — 
the western ewes in Fig. 138. These lambs, two crosses removed from Western ewes, possess 
the characteristics of Southdowns to such extent that none except expert judges could 
distinguish them from pure breds. 

other breeds, but unquestionably they make good use of the food 
they consume. In America they weigh approximately 50 pounds 
when three months old (Fig. 65). 

Breeding Qualities. — In Southdovm flocks, the per cent of 
lambs born to the number of ewes bred ranges from 135 to 150. The 
ewes are good mothers ; they seldom disown their lambs and they 
suckle them well. When in the lambing fold, the ewes, although 
smart and alert, are not wild, nervous or reckless to the detriment 
of their lambs. 

In cross-breeding and in grading up. Southdown rams are ex- 
tremely prepotent. No matter what kind of ewes they are mated 
with, their offspring bear unmistakable resemblance to the South- 



QUESTIONS 109 

down breed not only iu external appearance, but also in manner of 
feeding and growth, and in quality of mutton. For this reason 
Southdown rams are especially suited to crossing on Dorset Horned 
and Merino ewes when early or winter lambs are desired for special 
markets (Fig. G6). 

Distribution. — The Southdown has been introduced into prac- 
tically all countries where the production of mutton has received 
attention. But in spite of its trimness, which is always a delight 
to the eye, and its superior quality of mutton, it has not l)ecome 
the prevailing breed in many regions outside of its native hom'e. In 
America, and in various other countries as well, England excepted, 
its distribution is characterized by occasional flocks. The reason 
for this is that it is not big enough and its fleece is too light in 
weight to suit the average sheep raiser. But unquestional)ly there 
are many places in the United States where the grain and grass 
crops are admirably suited to the Southdown, and since the Amer- 
ican markets always welcome neat, tidy lambs, there is no good reason 
wliy pure and grade Southdown flocks should not be more numerous. 

Both in England and in the United States societies have been 
organized for the promotion of the breed. The English society; 
which succeeded the p]nglish Southdown Sheep Breeders' As-^ocia- 
tion, organized in 1890, is known as the Southdown Sheep Society 
and it annual! v publishes a volume enittled " The Southdown Flock 
Book." 

The American society was incorporated in 1882 as the American 
Southdown Association, and its annual volume is entitled " The 
American Southdown Eecord." 

1. Compare the work of Kllmaii Riid Webl). 

2. What desirable features did tlie old Southdowns possess? 

3. Wliat undesirable features '! 

4. Enumerate the superior points of the Southdown as a mutton sheep. 

5. What criticisms have been made against the Southdown? 

6. On what kind of land do you think Southdowns would return as mucli 

or more than any other breed? 

7. On what kind of land do you think it would be inadvisable to keep them? 

8. Would you gather from tiie history of the Southdown that it strongly 

impresses its characters when crossed with other breeds? 

9. What can be said of the prolificacy and milking qualities of Southdown 

ewes? 



CHAPTER XI 

THE SHROPSHIRE 

History. — Old Tijpen. — The Shropshire was developed into a 
distinct hi'eed in the counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire, in 
central western England. Because of extensive areas of pasture on 
hoth hill and cultivated lands, flock husbandry was a prominent 
feature in the agriculture of these counties long before the time 
of modern Shropshire. Certain types of sheep were confined to 
different parts, the more important of these being Morfe Common, 
Cannock Chase, Long Mynd, and Whittington Heath. The sheep 
were named after the locality to which they belonged, and, although 
they bore an unmistakable resemblance to each other, they were 
somewhat different and were regarded as separate types. It is also 
probable that they were not markedly unlike the old stock on the 
Southdown Hills from which the Southdown breed was developed. 
They were active, hardy, accustomed to running at large without a 
shepherd, and little subject to scab or foot rot. They yielded from 
two to three pounds of wool, which was graded with the choicest 
produced in England. As a rule, they matured slowly and when 
fatted at two or three years of age, weighed from 75 to 110 pounds. 
Lack of width and a drop behind the shoulders were their most 
pronounced faults in conformation. They varied in face and leg 
markings from spotted to dark brown or black, and with the excep- 
tion of the Cannock (*hasc, they were horned (Fig. G7). 

Method of Development. — Writers are not agreed as to the 
way in which the Shropshire was made. Some maintain that it was 
formed by selecting and mating the best from the old native breeds 
of the two counties, while others say that it came into existence 
through the crossing of improved Southdowns. Leicesters, and Cots- 
wolds on the native stock. Alfred Mansell, Secretary of the Eng- 
lish Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association, and a leading author- 
ity, states that there are no reliable records showing how improve- 
ment in size, in uniformity of character, and in value and weight of 
fleece was effected. He further says : " In the early days, some his- 
torians say that the Southdown ram was introduced for this purpose, 
whilst others equally well qualified to express an opinion assert that 
110 



METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT 



111 



uniformity of character and perfection of form are the result of 
selection from home-bred sheep of the best type. Speaking from 
personal knowledge far back into the last century, I am in a position 
to assert that no one who has achieved any success as a breeder or 
exhibitor has deviated from a line of pure breeding for the past 60 
or 70 years" (Fig. G8). 

There seems to be a preponderance of evidence, however, that 
cross breeding was practised prior to and during the time the breed 
was coming into existence. Wilson, Plymley, Tanner, Melden, 




Fig. 67. — Shropshire ram, Tanner Royal. First prize, two shear ram, EngHsh Royal 
and International Show in Chicago, 1913. Bred by Alfred Tanner, England. A great-sire 
in the flock of Arthur Broughton and Sons, Albany, Wis. 

Clarke, Spooner, and Wrightson are practically agreed on this point. 
John Algernon Clarke states that two of the most celebrated found- 
ers of the breed, Samuel Meire and George Adney, practised crossing, 
the former using both Southdown and Leicester blood, and the latter 
only the Southdown cross. W. C. Spooner in an article on cross- 
breeding, published in volume 20 of the Royal Agricultural Society 
Eeport, quoted the following as a part of a speech that M. J. Meire 
made before a farmers' club in Shropshire County : " It is not 



112 THE SHROPSHIRE 

attempted to be denied that the Shropshire is a cross-bred sheep; 
the original breed was horned, and the first attempt at improvement 
was to get rid of these incumbrances, and there is little doubt that 
this was effected by the cross of the Southdown. This sheep was well 
adapted for the Downs, but for the enclosures of Shropshire some- 
thing more docile was required, consequently recourse was had to 
the Leicester." It is altogether probable that most, if not all, of 
this crossing was done before there was a conscious movement toward 
the formation of a new breed, and it is certain that selection has 
been the great agency in the improvement of the breed. The leading 
breeders have been thorough students of blood lines, and in the main 




FiQ. 68. — First priz. i i;. - .pshire ram, England Royal Show, 1909. Bred and 
exhibited by Sir Frank Bibby. A smoot^ low-set thick type that has helped to develop 
popularity for the Shropshire. 

they have practised closely restricted line breeding. Except from 
the standpoint of historical interest it little matters how the breed 
was developed because it is a notable fact that at the present time it 
breeds true to a uniform type (Fig. 69). 

Cooperation of Breeders. — A comparatively large number of 
farmers, with a few leading, worked together to bring the Shropshire 
into prominence. As stated elsewhere, a certain Samuel Meire and 
a George Adney were two of the earlier and more prominent im- 
provers. These two men did their most effective work in the early 



RECOGNITION AS A BREED 



113 



fifties of tlie nineteen til century, altliough, according to the "Farmers' 
Magazine," Adney's flock must have been founded as early as 1820. 
Other early improvers of note were Messrs. Henry Smith, J, and E. 
Crane, Green, Horton, Farmer, W. 0. Foster, G. M. Kettel, H. J. 
Sheldon, Thomas Mansell, John Coxon, Edward Hollow, Thomas 
Harley, John Stubbs, E. Thornton, Sampson Byrd, Colonel Dyoot,. 
and Mrs. Annie Baker. Others coming into prominence a little later 
were Messrs. Henry Mathews, Pryce, W. Bowen, J. H. Bradburne, 
R. H. Masfen, Joseph Meire, Maddox, John Preece, John Stubbs, 
C. R. Keeling, William Grindle, J. B. Green, T. C. Whitmore, 
Edward Thornton, Lord Wenlock, and still others. This large group 
of breeders worked together for the ])erfection and advancement of 
the breed and that they succeeded is a well-known fact. One thing 




Fio. 69. — Stud Shropshire rams in field condition. Property of Thomas Buttar, 
Coupar Angus, Scotland. With the exception of the sheep in the center of the group, these 
sheep, although not in pretty show-yard bloom, possess the characteristics Shropshire 
breeders desire in their breeding rams. 

they did which displayed farseeing and intelligent cooperation was 
to petition the Council of the Eoyal Agricultural Society to appoint 
well-known judges to act for a term of years at the Royal Show 
for the purpose of fixing the true type and character of the Shrop- 
shire. The Council took heed of this petition and the decisions of 
the judges it appointed were studiously noted. With the awards in 
mind, breeders returned to their homes and carefully determined 
the good and bad points in their own sheep and the direction in 
which their efforts in breeding should be turned. No other group of 



114 



THE SHROPSHIRE 



breeders has done a more significant thing than this in its bearing 
on uniformity of type (Fig. 70). 

Recognition as a Breed. — Shropshires were first exhibited at 
the Eoyal Show of England in 1845, but no class was made for them 
at that time. In 1853 they were placed in a special class for short- 
wooled sheep, not Southdowns, and they were given a class of their 
own in 1859, which was the first time that any of the short-wooled 
breeds broke up the classification, " Short-wooled sheep which are 
not Southdowns." Their rapid rise in prominence at the shows can 




Fig. 70. — Shropshire ewe. Bred by T. S. Minton, England, and exhibited by J. C. 
Andrew, West Point, Indiana. Female champion of the breed at the International Live 
Stock Show, Chicago, 1916. The extension white of wool over the face and legs, the turn 
of the neck, smoothly set high on the shoulders, and the rounding line of the body are 
desirable. 



be appreciated by a statement of the entries at the Koyal Show in 
1884. At Shrewsbury, the center of the home of the breed, 875 
Shropshires from fifteen counties were on exhibition, while the total 
of all other breeds was 420. This exhibit further stimulated home 
breeding and created a strong foreign demand. 

Description. — The Shropshire is the result of great skill and 
judgment on the part of breeders during the past sixty years and it 



THE PRESENT-DAY SHROPSHIRE 



115 



is very different from the most typical specimens that appeared at the 
English shows between 1850 and 1870. Speaking of the show- 
yard celebrities of that period, Mansell says : " They were for the 
most part brown with speckled legs, fine in the bone and devoid of 
wool, with bare bellies, and too often sickle-hocked, and crooked 
spines were the rule rather than the exception. The head of the 
males lacked masculine strength and character, and carried little 
or no wool on the poll, and the sheep generally stood on much 
longer legs than the modern Shropshire. Little attention at this 
early date had been paid to the wool, whicli was generally of a soft 
open character and greatly lacking in tliat density, length of stai)le 




Fig. 71. — Fitted Shropshire ewes adorning the pastures of J. C. Andrew, West Point, 

Indiana. 



and fineness which is now one of the leading attributes of breed" 

(Fig. :i). 

The Present-Day Shropshire. — Form and Weiglit. — The 
Shropshire is similar to the Southdown in build of body and length 
of legs, but considerably different in various other features. The 
neck is longer and more arclied ; the head is carried higher and is 
proportionately broader between the ears and eyes, slightly longer 
and stronger in face profile ; the ears are attached a little lower down 
on the sides of the head and are not quite so nearly erect; the hair 
on nose, ears, and legs is a darker shade of brown, being called a 
deep, soft brown, and the wool is longer, not as fine, and extends 
farther over the face and legs. Shropshires are larger than South- 



116 



THE SHROPSHIRE 



downs, mature rams weighing from 200 to 350 pounds ; ewes from 
150 to 180 pounds.! 

Stijle. — In style and show-yard finish the Shropshire is imj^res- 
sive and it leads the mutton breeds in drawing attention and admira- 
tion at American livestock exhibitions. With its head set proudly 
upon a gracefully turned neck, and with its smoothly turned sym- 
metrical body, and its picturesque extension of downy, white wool 
over the face and legs, it possesses an air of grandeur rather than 
of smartness and nattiness which is characteristic of the Southdown 
(Fig. 73). 




Fig. 72. — ^Eleven typical ^tironshire ewos sired by "Senator Bibby," a famous stud 
ram in the floclc of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin. 

Wool. — In twelve months Shropshire wool attains a length of 
from two and one-half to three inches and fleeces average between 
S and 10 pounds in weight. The wool is fairly fine and sufficiently 
dense to protect the animal well from unfavorable weather. No 
other mutton breed equals the Shropshire in extension of wool over 
the face and legs. With the most typical specimens all of the face 
except the nose or muzzle is covered with white wool and the legs 
are covered to the pasterns. Also the ears are often covered with 

^Weight standards are hard to fix and at best only an estimate can 
be made. For the Shropshire and all other breeds discussed in this volume 
the woiffhts given apply to sheep that are in fairly high condition, but Hot 
exceedingly fat. 



THE PRESENT-DAY SHROPSHIRE 



117 



wool. In most cases tlic leg covering is not complete, particularly 
on the forelegs, and fre(iuently it is not clear white. White wool 
should extend to the knees and hocks, however, and on the hind 
legs it should extend on down from the hock to the pasterns, but 
between these points a slight admixture of dark wool is permissible. 
Dark wool also often appears on the head and face, the phu'es of its 
most frequent occurrence being the horn holes and the regions just 
al)ove the eyes. In show sheep such wool is objectionable, but if 
})resent to only a slight extent it is largely overlooked in flock 
spei-imens (Fig. 73). 




Fig. 73. — Shropshire lambs bred by Henry Wardwell, Springfield Center, New York. 
Few animals are as winsome as four-month-old Shropshire lambs covered with baby fat 
and encased with downy white wool from nose to toes. 



Breeders attempt to grow white wool on the head and legs of 
their sheep for two reasons: first, pure white wool on the extremities 
almost invariably indicates freedom from dark fibers in the body 
of the fleece; second, the sharp demarcation between white wool 
and deep brown hair has a much more pleasing effect than the merg- 
ing of dark wool and brown hair. Dark wool in the body of the 
fleece detracts from its value because white wool admixed witli darlc 
fibers can not be dyed to a pure color other than black. For this 
reason any Shropshire having a noticeable amount of dark wool 
anywhere above the knees and hocks and back of a line drawn from 
ear to ear should be discarded as a breeding animal. Regarding the 
covering of head and legs \vitli wool, it should be stated that it is 
seldom uniform in extent through all seasons of the year. Breeding 
ewes particularly are likely to begin shedding it a few weeks after 
they lamb and both sexes are likely to lose some of it during the 
hot summer months. 



118 



THE SHROPSHIRE 



MarMngs and Slin. — Although a deep soft brown is the most 
tyi^ical color for the hair on the nose, ears, and legs, considerable 
variation exists and is permissible. Bluish or steel gray markings 
are not objected to by many American breeders, as they are regarded 
as indicative of robustness, easy feeding qualities, and pure white 
fleeces. Rusty brown or faded out brown, particularly when asso- 
ciated with very thin short hair on the nose and ears, are undesir- 
able shades of color, and spotted markings, characteristic of cross- 
bred or grade down sheep, are undersirable to such extent that they 
usually disqualify the animal. 

The skin of the typical Shropshire is a bright pink or cherry red. 
No other group of breeders of dark-faced sheep has been so exacting 




Fig. 74. — Shropshire ewe lambs, eight months old, bred by the University of Illinois. 

with respect to the color of skin as the Shropshire men. In spite 
of this fact, however, bluish skins and pink skins with numerous 
bluish spots are not uncommon. Pink skins are thought to indicate 
easy feeding qualities and freedom from a tendency to grow dark 
wool (Fig. 7-t). 

Horns or evidence of their presence are regarded as a aisqualifica- 
tion. They never appear in females, but in males their presence or 
absence should always be determined by the examiner. 

Properties. — The mutton of the Shropshire is of high quality, 
being fine grained, firm, and of desirable color both in lean and fat. 
T ne lambs when well finished and weighing about eighty pounds are 
of especially high quality and rank with the best as lamb mutton. 

Hardiness and Feeding Qualities. — In ability to withstand 
hardship and disease the Shropshire is no hardier than most of 



BREEDING QUALITIES 



119 



the mutton breeds, but it is unusually well adapted to average con- 
ditions with respect to feed and care. It responds well to rich 
pastures, but it also does well where the grazing is of only average 
quality. The Shropshire thrives on forage crops and it takes kindly 
to the dry lot if soiling crops are available. Whether in the north 
or south, on lowlands, hills, mountains, or semi-arid plains, it 
grows into a pretty good Shropshire and satisfies the demand for 
a good mutton sheep. Although the lambs grow at a fairly rapid 
rate, they are not inclined to be as plump and firm at an early age 
as the Southdown, one reason being that so many of them are 




Fig. 75. — Lambs by Shrorshire ram in Fig. 150 and out of western ewes shown j.. 1 .j^. i i.\. 
These lambs are the kind that command top prices at the market. 

twins. At three months of age they average about fifty pounds 
in weight. 

Breeding Qualities. — In prolificacy the Shropshire is unsur- 
passed by any other widely-distributed improved breed of sheep. A 
fiock of one hundred breeding ewes will often average from one hun- 
dred and fifty to one hundred and seventy-five lambs, and even a 
larger percentage is not uncommon. ITndoubtedly this marked pro- 
lificacy is due in no small degree to the attention given it by the 
early improvers of the breed. At birth the lambs weigh about eight 
pounds. As a rule the singles are considerably heavier, but the 
average birth weight is cut down materially by the great number of 
twins. The ewes suckle very well and the lambs are fairly strong at 



120 



THE SHROPSHIRE 



birth. In the selection of breeding ewes most American l)rec(lers 
need to cm})hasize the practice of retaining females that are able 
to produce strong lambs and grow them well. Unless this is done 
there is danger of marked prolificacy being a hindrance rather than 
a help to the breed. There was a time when Shropshire breeders 
would sacrifice too much, in such essentials as constitution and 
ability to make rapid growth, for the sake of extreme wool covering. 
Distinctive and picturesque as are Shropshires with woolly heads and 
legs, they do not conform to the " rent-paying " idea early conceived 
by improvers if they do not possess the power of growing strong. 



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Fig. 76. — Keeping watch for the fellow in front. Shropshire rams. 



lusty, sappy lambs. It is better to have only a moderate wool 
covering than to be without this power, a fact which all Shropshire 
breeders should keep in mind. 

Shropshire rams, because they impart their mutton qualities 
uniformly to their lambs, have been widely used in the United 
States and elsewhere in cross-breeding and grading up. Their off- 
spring from either pure or grade Merino ewes develop into splendid 
market lanil)s (Fig. 75). 

Distribution. — Because of inherent good qualities and eflficient 
promotion, the Shropshire breed has been widely distributed. It 



QUESTIONS 121 

is more nearly a cosmopolitan than any of the other mutton breeds; 
exportations have been made from its native home to all of the 
leading sheep countries and to many others of lesser importance. 
In the farm Hocks of the United States and Canada there is more 
Shropshire blood than (hat of any other breed; it has also been 
widely distributed over the range regions of these countries, hi 
England the members of the Shropshire Sheej) Society have coop- 
erated in making their breed prominent, chiefly by making large 
and attractive displays of their sheep at the leading shows. The 
volumes published yearly since the organization of the society con- 
tain much interesting material concerning the breed. The American 
Shropshire Society, organized in 18<S4. is the largest separate sheep 
society in the world, it also i)ublislies an annual volume (Fig. 70). 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what direction and ahoiit how far is the native iionie of the Slirop- 

shire from tliat of the Southdown '! 

2. Contrast the method of developing tlie Shropshire witli that of de- 

veloping tile Southdown. 

3. When were Shropshires first recognized as a distinct breed :it tlie Koyal 

Show of England? 

4. Compare a typical S]iro])siiire witli a typical Soutlidown. 

5. What properties of the Shropshire have had an influence on its dis- 

tribution? 
0. Discuss tlic prolificacy of the Shropshire. . 



CHAPTEE XII 
THE HAMPSHIRE 

History. — The Old Siocl-. — The Hampshire breed originated 
on the rolling, chalky, light land of south central England in the 
county of Hampshire, the southern border of which touchas the 
English Channel. Early in the nineteenth century the Southdown, 
as improved by Ellman, was extensively used by the farmers in the 
general region of Hampshire for crossing on the old Wiltshire and 
Berkshire Knot breeds. The old Wiltshires have been described as 
white-faced, large, imposing looking animals with long legs, high 
withers, sharp spines, big heads, Koman noses, and curling horns. 
Their wool was moderately fine and the fleeces from ewe flocks 
averaged from two to two and one-half pounds. Originally they 
were kept primarily for their wool and dung. They were well 
adapted to folding on the arable land and to travelling out several 
miles each day for their feed on the closely cropped downs. Before 
the introduction of Southdown lilood, the Wilts farmers were in- 
creasing the size and improving the conformation of the Wiltshire 
to such extent that they were accused of breeding for beauty and 
not for utility. With the exception of dark faces and legs, the 
Berkshire Knots resembled the Wiltshires (Fig. 77). 

In many cases pure Southdowns replaced the native sheej) of 
both Wiltshire and Ham])shire and crossing with Southdowns be- 
came so general that the native types were merged into the old 
Hampshire, which was a sort of modified Southdown but not suffi- 
ciently uniform in type to deserve the distinction of being called a 
l)reed. According to James Eawlence the last flock of the old 
Wiltshire horned breed disap2>eared about 1819. Probably the 
Southdown, with its superior quality and attractive character would 
have entirely replaced the old breeds had it not been that Wiltshire 
and Hampshire farmers awakened to the indispensable value of 
the hardiness, early maturity, and large size which the flocks carry- 
ing some of the blood of the old sheep possessed. The value of 
these characteristics became apparent not long after the down lands 
were enclosed, treated with artificial manures and planted to such 
crops as turnips, rape, vetches, clover, rye, and Italian rye grass. 

122 



HISTORY 



123 




124 THE HAMPSHIRE 

These crops, secured at considerable expense, had to be fed to sheep 
capable of handling large quantities of rank forage and of turning 
off big wether lambs rather than yearling or two-year-old wethers 
(Fig. 78). 

Work of Humphrey. — By L^35 Hampshire sheep, according to 
Wrightson, had taken their general form, but there yet remained 
the task of reducing them to a uniform type with the power of 
transmitting their characters regiilarly to their offspring. In this 
work Mr. Humphrey, of Oak Ash, near Wantage, in Berksliire, led 
all others to the extent that he is generally credited with giving 
the breed its present character and position. He attained his suc- 
cess by carefully selecting those ewes which in his Judgment were 
the best of the old Hami^shire Downs, then known as West Country 




FtG. 78. — Hampshire ewes in England cleaning up a growth of forage, which has been 
partially consumed by their lambs. 

Downs, and mating them with Southdown rams from the flock of 
Jonas Webb. His method of procedure is well brought out in his 
historic communication to W. C. Spooner in 1859. 

"About twenty-five years since, in forming my flock, I pur- 
chased the best Hampshire or West Country Down ewes I could 
meet with. Some of them I obtained from the late Mr. G. Budd, 
Mr. William Pain, Mr. Digwee, and other eminent breeders, giving 
40 shillings when ordinary ewes were malving 33 shillings, and 
using the best rams I could get of the same kind until the Oxford 
Show of the Eoyal Agricultural Society. On examining the dif- 
ferent breeds exhibited there, I found the Cotswolds were beautiful 
in form and of great size, and, on malcing inquiries as to how they 
were brought to such perfection, I was informed that a Leicester 



WORK OF HUMPHREY 



125 



ram was coupled to some of the largest Cotswold ewes, and the 
most robust of the produce was selected for use. The thought then 
struck me that my best plan would be to obtain a first-rate Sussex 
1 )own Southdown sheep to put to my larger Hampsliire Down ewes, 
l)oth being the Short-woolled breed. . , . With this object I wrote to 
]\Ir. Jonas Webb to send me one of his best sheep, and he sent me a 
sliearling by his favorite sheep Babraham. I went down the next 
two years and selected for myself, but the stock did not suit my taste 
so well as the one he sent me, and I did not use them. I then com- 
missioned liim to send me the sheep which ohtained the first prize 
at Liverpool, and from these two sheep, the first and last, by mark- 




FiG. 79. — Twenty-two thousand Hampshires in pens made with hurdles, Salisbury 

Fair, England. 



ing the lambs of each tribe as they fell, then coupling them together 
at the third and fourth generation, my present ilock was made " 
(Fig. 79). 

Some time after Mr. Humphrey began his work he drafted 
twenty-five ewes from a purchase of one hundred, made in con- 
junction with his neighbor, Mr. Kawlence. This was the only time 
he introduced outside blood through females. Before using any of 
his rams extensively he tested them on a selected few of his ewes 
and if they did not breed to suit him, they were sent to the butcher. 
Plis greatest difficulty was the loss of size which was overcome by 
regularly disposing of his smallest ewes. In fact, his skill as a 
breeder was due in large part to his diligence in weeding out 



126 THE HAMPSHIRE 

animals that did not promise to contribute to the end he had in 
view. After his death, in 1868, his flock was sold at auction. Mr. 
James Kawlence, of Bulbridge, who from time to time purchased 
stock of Mr. Humphrey, proved to be a worthy successor as a leader 
in still further improving and promoting the breed. In founding 
his flock his method was just the opposite of that of Mr. Humphrey ; 
he selected Southdowns for his female stock and mated them with 
Hampshire rams (Fig. 80). 




Fia. 80. — A prominent prize- winning Hampshire ram bred by H, C. Stephens, England. 
Massiveness of body, heavy bone, thoroughly masculine features in the head, and a strong 
neck rising rather high where it joins the head are desirable characteristics of a Hampshire 
breeding ram. 

Cause of Early Maturity. — Among Hampshire breeders most 
of the rams in flock service are lambs, and the belief that the early 
maturity of the breed has been brought about by the consistent con- 
tinuance of this practice is prevalent. That it has been a contribut- 
ing cause is altogether likely, but E. P. Squarey and J. E. Eawlence, 
in their history of the Hampshire Down as it appears in the first 
volume of the English Society, maintain that early maturity was 
characteristic of the old Wiltshire (Fig. 81). 



DESCRIPTION 



127 



Description. — Form and Weight. — The Modern Hampshire is 
a bold, massive, thick-fleshed, hornless sheep with a long, deep, 
symmetrical body, heavy bone, and striking head features. Mature 
rams in breeding condition weigh from 250 to 300 pounds; ewes 
from 180 to 225 pounds. The head is large and the face profile is 
slightly Roman in females and distinctly so in males ; the ears are 
long, fairly wide and thick and attached so as to fall slightly out- 
ward and forward when the animal is at attention. The neck. 




Fig. 81. 



-Hampshire ewe. The ears are typical of the breed — rather long, set aim 
horizontal to the head with the inside turned frontward. 



although rather long, is thick and muscular and set to the shoulders 
so as to permit the sheep to carry the head above the body rather 
than horizontal with it. The legs, being of medium length are 
properly proportioned to the large body that they support. 

A fault rather common in the Hampshire about twenty years 
ago was a falling away behind the shoulders, Init this defect has 
been almost eliminated. 

Wool. — Hampshires, when properly cared for, yield approxi- 



128 



THE HAMPSHIRE 



mately eight pounds of unwashed wool, which is about two and one- 
half inches long, fairl}' dense, and a trifle coarser than Shropshire 
wool. To be typical the fleece must be all white, but an admixture 
of dark fibers is not uncommon. Pure white wool extends over the 
head, cheeks, and forehead to a line a little below the eyes. Of late 
years breeders, especially those in the United States, have been in- 
clined to favor an extension of wool over the face, and lambs with 
almost as much face covering as Shropshires have appeared at shows. 
On the legs white wool should extend to the knees and hocks. Most 
show specimens, however, have the wool carried down almost, or 



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Fig. 82: 



-Hampshire ewes in show bioom: i wo lo leu are yearlings; two lo right are 
lambs and are almost as large as the yearlings. 



quite, to the pasterns. Some American breeders have observed that 
the woolly-faced ewes are not as heavy milkers and as a result do 
not grow their lambs as well as the open-faced ewes (Fig. 82). 

MarHngs and Skin. — ^The color of face, ears, and legs, is a very 
rich, dark brown approaching black, which makes a sharp but 
pleasing contrast with the white wool on the head, forehead, cheeks 
and legs. Breeders are particular about color. A dark tinge in the 
head wool is sure to give an animal a low rating in a high-class 
show and a bar of light brown or gray hair across the face, just 
below the wool cap, is unfavorably regarded in rams. 



BREEDING QUALITIES 



129 



The skin of the typical Hampshire is pink, but there is a strong 
tendency toward very dark or bluish skins. Horns or evidence of 
their presence amount to a disqualification (Fig. 83). 

Properties. — Raie of Grow^/i.— Hampshires are famous for their 
size, rapid rate of growth, early maturity, and ability to thrive on 
forage crops between hurdles. When liberally fed they are without 
an equal in rapid rate of growth. In England, where they are kept 
between hurdles a great part of the time, the lambs often make 
more than a pound of gain per day through periods of one hundred 
days or more. They attain what seem like preposterous weights 
before they are a year old. Eight- and nine-month laml)s can be 
made to weigh two hundred pounds and even more. As a pure-bred 



"*|»t.*-t4 



Fia. 83 — First-prize pen often Hampshire ram lambs, Salisbury Fair, England, July, 1909. 
Note the size and maturity of these lambs, all born after Jan. 1, 1909. 

sheep they undoubtedly belong in a system where liberal feeding is 
practiced ; otherwise their most valuable properties cannot f unctioji. 
The ewes winter well on roughage. 

In quality of mutton the Hampshire shows its Soutlidown in- 
heritance; the lean meat is fine-grained and firm and as large 
mutton it has no superior. 

Breeding Qualities. — Hampshire ewes are prolific, strong in 
maternal instinct, and good milkers. The lambing record of thirty- 
seven English flocks was kept by the English Society in 1903 ; 
15,482 ewes raised 18,462 lambs or 119.17 per cent. Numbers con- 
sidered, this speaks well for the prolificacy and hardiness of the 
breed. At birth the lambs are large, weighing around ten pounds, 
9 



130 



THE HAMPSHIRE 



and they begin at once to grow rapidly. As pure breds they do 
not come to market finish at as light weight as Southdowns and 
Shropshires, it being necessary for them to grow to eigh-ty pounds 




Fig. S;4. — Hampsliire ewes and lambs on alfalfa, University of Illinois. 

or more before they are sufficiently firm and ripe to be a first-class 
Iamb product. This is not the case with the cross breds, however, 
and botli in England and America the Hampshire ram is in demand 




Fig. 85. — Lambs sired by the Hampshire ram in Fig. 153 and out of Western ewes shown in 
Fig. 148. Lambs of this cross grow rapidly and are very popular on various Western ranges. 

for crossing purposes. In Idaho, Washington, and Montana, Hamp- 
shires crossed on range ewes produce ideal market lambs. On the 
mountain range they grow big, fat, and ripe and ready for slaughter 
without ever having received grain (Fig. 84), 



QUESTIONS 131 

Distribution. — The wide distribution of the Hampshire indi- 
cates its importance. In England it is to be found in many differ- 
ent counties, but it is kept in greatest numbers in the region of its 
native home. At the great summer and autumn fairs or sale days 
in Hampshire and Wiltshire, the numbers penned at a single fair 
run from 20,000 to 100,000 head. Exportations have been made 
from England to all of the important sheep countries. In the 
United States they are fairly well distributed, but they are not 
nearly so numerous as the Shropshire. 

Hampshire Sheep Breeders' Associations were organized in both 
England and America in 1889. The English Association published 
the " Hampshire Down Flock Book," and the American Association, 
the "■ Flock IJecord of llam})shire Down Sheep." 

QUESTIONS 

1. Secure a map of P'rifjlaiul and locate tlie native lionie of tlie TTamp- 

shire. Ju what direction is it from the native iiome of tlie 
SouthdoAvn ? 

2. What has the nature of the soil in the native home of the Hampshire 

to do with the way sheep are handled there? 

3. Who was the greatest improver of the Hampshire? Tell something of 

his methods. 

4. C4ive the most marked difference between Shropshires and Hampshires. 
5.. Would you feed Hampshires and Southdowns together? 

(). Describe the markings of the Hampshire; the bone; the head. 
7. What sections of the United States do you think best adapted to 
Hampshires? 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE OXFORD DOWN 

History. — The Oxford Down or Oxford, as it is commonly called, 
originated in the county of Oxford in central England. Oxford 
County is the meeting ground of the strongholds of the Hampshire 
just south, and of the Cotswold immediately west. The Oxford 
sheep was made by crossing these two breeds. Mr. Samuel Druce, 
of Ensham aud several other Oxfordshire farmers began to breed 
Cotswold rams to Hampshire ewes in 1833 or thereabouts. Druce 
and William Gillet also used Southdowns to some extent in the 
early days before the Hampshires were settled to a uniform type by 
Humphrey, when Hampshire breeders, themselves, occasionally used 
Southdown rams. Cross-breeding probably continued for a number 
of years. Wrightson quotes C. S. Eead as saying: "The (flock) 
owner formerly divided his flock into three parts, putting the half- 
bred ram to the ewes that were about right, a Cotswold to the small 
ones, and a Down (Hampshire Down) to the coarser sheep." Draw- 
ing upon the words of someone else, Wrightson further says : " Mr. 
Druce early found that good qualities can better be secured by 
employing the cross-bred animals on l)oth sides than by using the 
first cross." Gradually the breed type evolved from a more or less 
heterogeneous group of cross-breds. After 1854 pure-breds from 
either of the parent breeds or from any other breeds were no 
longer employed (Eig. Sfi). 

Beginning in 1840, J. T. Twynam did mut-h to draw the atten- 
tion of the public to the new l)reed. It was given a place as a 
distinct breed by the Eoyal Agricultural Society at its vshow at 
Battersca in 1863. 

Description. — Form and Size. — The Oxford is a large, some- 
what upstanding sheep with strong bone and a high, graceful car- 
riage of head which it doubtless inherits from the Cotswold. The 
top of the body is very wide and in contour approaches the rectan- 
gular, rather than the oval characteristic of the Southdown and the 
Shropshire. The head and ears are a trifle smaller and the face 
profile less inclined to be Eoman than in the Hampshire. Mature 
rams in breeding condition weigh from 275 to 300 pounds and ewes 
200 pounds or more (Fig. 87). 
132 



Fig. 86 




TiQ.87 



FiQ 86 —Oxford-Down ram. Shown by N. W. Harris, Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. The 
Oxford-Down has a longer fleece than the other Down breeds. , ^ „ „^ A/i„T<'„,,.nw ^.nH 

Fig. 87.— Oxford-Down ewe, a prominent winner. Property of George McKeiiOwana 
Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin. 



134 THE OXFORD DOWN 

Wool. — There is a little more of the face covered with wool in 
the Oxford than in the Hampshire; the growth on the forehead is 
long enough to form a distinct top knot which is intensified in show 
specimens by leaving the forehead wool long at shearing time. In 
twelve months Oxford wool grows to a length of from three to four 
inches ; it is strong and lustrous and ranks with Hampshire wool in 
fineness. Unwashed fleeces average from ten to twelve pounds in 
weight. As a producer of wool no other Down breed equals the 
Oxford. 

Marl-ings and Shin. — The color of the face, ears and legs in the 
Oxford is a lighter brown than in the Hampshire. In fact the 
typical Oxford brown has no suggestion of black about it, as there 
is in the case of the Hampshire and Shropshire. Breeders allow 




Fig. 8S. — Oxford-Downs bred by the veteran, R. J. Stone, Stonington, Illinois. 



considerable variation in color markings, however, and shades rang- 
ing from steel gray to dark brown pass as being typical. Oxford 
breeders prefer sheep with bright pink skins to those with spotted 
or bluish skins. Dark wool either on the head or body is objection- 
able. The breed is hornless ; hence, any evidence of horns in rams 
is undesiraljle (Fig. 88). 

Properties. — Great size, outstanding weight and quality of wool 
for a Down breed, prolificacy and deep milking properties are 
attributes which Oxford breeders claim for their sheep. In addi- 
tion it may be said that although the mutton is hardly as fine in 
quality as that of the Southdown, it is good enough markedly to 
improve the carcass when the Oxford ram is used in cross-breeding 
and up-grading. 

Oxfords are fully as hardy as any of the dark-faced breeds and 



DISTRIBUTION 



135 



the ewes continue to breed until they reach a ripe old age. Although 
they are large sheep and quite capable of handling heavy forage 
crops, they are also able to do fairly well on the feed furnished to 
the average farm flock in the eastern and central parts of the United 
States. This ability, together with their superior shearing qualities, 
makes them desirable as a farmer's sheep (Fig. 89). 

On account of their heavy yield of milk and strongly developed 
maternal instinct, Oxford ewes are splendid mothers. Twins are 
frequent and the lambs are large, weighing about ten pounds at 
birth. Singles frequently weigh more. The lamias grow rapidly 
but they do not attain weight quite so rapidly as the Hampshire. 




Fig. 89. — Lanibb I.1..I li,\ tb. 1 riivrr?i1\ of Illinois; siro.l l\v ( ixtoiM-l >oxmi ram in 
Fig. 152 and out of Weoleiu ev\es in lig. 148. These lambs, burn m .Muich, made rapid 
growth and were pronounced prime for the market before July 1st. 

Both in the United States and Germany, Oxford rams have 
proved satisfactory for crossing on Merino and Merino-grade ewes. 
Especially is this true when the female offspring are to be retained 
as breeding stock for, in addition to the mutton qualities imparted, 
a beautiful fleece of desirable weight is ol)tained. 

Distribution. — At present the breed is well distributed over 
Great Britain, the United States, and Canada, and flocks are to be 
found in nearly or quite all of the leading sheep countries. The 
American Oxford Down Sheep Kecord Association was organized in 
18R4 and the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' Association of England 
in 1888. Both associations issue an annual volume. 



136 THE OXFORD DOWN 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the histoiies of the Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire and 

Oxford and determine in which the origin of tiie breed seems to 
be most clearly known. 

2. In what respects are Oxfords most different from Ilampshires? 

3. Do Oxfords resemble Cotswolds? 

4. Can you think of any reason- why it would be better to make a breed 

by crossing the Hampshire and the Cotswold than by crossing the 
Hampshire and the Romney Marsh? 

5. How far is the native home of the Southdown from that of the Oxford? 

6. Aside from the first cross between Cotswolds and Hampshires how was 

breeding conducted to develop the Oxford? 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE SUFFOLK 

History. — The native home of the Sutl'olk is northeast of Lon- 
don, England, in the counties of Suffolk, Cambridge, and Essex. In 
this region there existed at the beginning of the nineteenth century 
and before, a horned breed known as the Norfolk. It was a hardy, 
active sheep and produced mutton of superior grain and flavor. Be- 
tween 1800 and 1850 the Southdown was extensively used in the old 
Norfolk flocks for the pur])Ose of improving form and fattening 
proi>ertios. By the middle of the century the resulting Southdown- 
Norfolks were widely known as " Black-faces," and in 1859, at the 
annual meeting of the Suffolk Agricultural Association, they were 
given their jiresent name, "Suffolk" (Figs. 90 and 91). 

Description. — Suffolks are little if any larger than Shropshires, 
mature rams weighing about 250 j^ounds and ewes 165 pounds. 
They are hornless and the head, ears, and legs are black and free 
from wool covering. Their ears are long and their faces are long 
and distinctly Eoman. In conformation they tend to ranginess, 
but when well-finished they are plump and well-developed in the 
parts most valuable for meat. The wool is short and similar to 
the Hampshire in quality. As one would surmise from the fact 
that it does not extend over the head and frecpiently not as far as 
the knees and hocks, it often fails to cover the under side of the 
body. Although reports of nine pounds per fleece have been made, 
it is doubtful whether pure-bred flocks will average more than 
seven (Fig. 92). 

Properties. — The Suffolk is very liighly regarded for the quality 
of its mutton. It has no superior for a large proportion of lean and 
the grain is fine and firm. It has more than held its own with 
other breeds at the great Smithfield fat stock show in London in 
both the live and carcass classes. 

Returns made annually since 1887 by owners of registered 
Suffolk flocks show that on the average 100 ewes will raise 133 
lamlis. The lambs grow rapidly if well grazed and are ready for 
the English butcher when six months old. At eight to ten months 
of age they often yield carcasses of eighty to ninety pounds weight, 

137 



138 



THE SUFFOLK 
Fig. 90 




Fig. 91 

Fig. 90. — Suffolk "ram. There is no wool on the head of the Suffolk nor on the legs 
below the hocks and knees. The hair on face and legs is more nearly black than in any 
other Down breed. 

Fig. 91. — Suffolk ewe. The muzzle showing an "undershot" jaw is not typical. 



QUESTIONS 



139 



Hardiness is one of the strong claims made for the Suffolk. They 
are good at travelling and hence do well where their feed must be 
gathered from large areas. It is this ability which seems to cause 
them to be favorably regarded at present in South Africa. 

In North America little is known of the value of the Suffolk 
for crossing purposes. Supporters of the breed claim that Suffolk 
l)lood improves the carcass of long-wooled breeds by increasing the 
proportion of lean meat. 

Distribution. — The Suffolk is not so widely distributed as some 
of the other breeds in the Down group to wliieli it l)el(»iigs. Fhtr-ks 








Fig. 92. — Suffolk ewes, property ot W'm. T. Paul, England. Ni 
markings and the thick, firm legs of mutton, 

exist in a number of counties in England, but its native home is 
still its chief stronghold. Modest importations have been made to 
various sheep countries. In Canada and the United States, Suffolk 
flocks are rare and altogether too little is known about them. The 
Suffolk Sheep Society of England was organized in 188G. Its 
volumes, published annually, contain valuable data concerning the 
breed. An association was formed in the United States at Des 
Moines. Iowa, but up to 1918 it had published no flock book. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where was the Suffolk developed? 

2. Compare the Suffolk with tlie Hampshire. 

3. How does the Suffolk rank in tlie quality of its mutton? 

4. Compare the Suffolk with the Oxford Down for wool production. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE DORSET HORN 

History. — The Old Stock. — The native home of the Dorset Horn 
is in the counties of Dorset and Somerset in south central Enghind. 
In soil and climate these counties are similar to those adjoining 
them on the east in which the Hampshires were developed. No 
accounts are given to show exactly how the Dorset Horn was made, 
but as nearly as is known it was developed entirely by selection 
from a native stock bearing a close resemblance to, but not iden- 
tical with the old Wiltshire that was so prominent as one of the 
progenitors of the Hampshire. Descriptions of this parent stock 
refer to its horns, line wool, and also to the color of tlie Jips and 
iiostrils which in the main were black but occasionally were flesh- 
colored. The flesh color of nostrils and lips characteristic of the 
modern Dorset Horn seems to have prevailed first in Somerset, 
where the sheep were somewhat larger and more rangy than those 
in Dorset. 

Development of the Modern Dorset Horn. — During the first 
half of the nineteenth century Leicesters, Southdowns, Meriiios, 
and still other breeds were crossed on the old Dorset Horn stock. 
For a time the Southdown became very popular and it seemed as 
though the native sheep in their purity of lireeding would disap- 
pear. About 18'50, however, the tide began to turn in their favor, 
evidently because a few breeders in West Dorset had been steadily 
improving them by selecting toward the type desired without losing 
any of the fecundity and hardiness characteristic of the old stock. 
By thickening the shoulders the form was greatly improved and 
through selecting for flesh-colored nostrils and lips and for horns 
that curled around by the side of the face without rising above 
the head or inclining backwards, a uniform, distinctive and pleas- 
ing type was secured. 

Eichard Seymour, living in southwest Dorset, near Bridport, a 
little city close by the coast of the Englisli Channel, was the first 
notable improver of Dorset Horns. Between 1830 and 1840 he 
increased size and improved symmetry to such an extent that his 
flock was the best to be found. A group of tM^enty or more fol- 
140 



DESCRIPTION 



141 



lowed his example and made further improvement along the same 
lines, and it was largely through the sale of stock from their flocks 
that the improved type became prevalent in the county (Fig. 93). 
Description. — Form and Size. — The Dorset Horn is really a 
Down breed, but strikingly unlike the other prominent Down 
breeds because of its horns and its all-white color. The body is 
long, the bone and head features are strong and the whole make-up 
is more suggestive of ruggedness than of quality. The face is 
inclined to be long, and the muzzle is thicker than in the other 




FlQ. 93. — The Dorset Horn ram has massive horns which give his head a most 
masculine appearance. 



I )()wn l)reeds. High, open shoulders with a noticeable droiJ behind 
them and a rump deficient on either side of the spine are not of 
infrequent occurrence. Before the day of their improvement, 
Stevenson said of the Dorset that the ewes were much more com- 
]ilete in form than the wethers or rams, an observation which 
applies t6 a certain extent to the modern type. Dorset Horns are 
large, mature rams weighing approximately 275 pounds and ewes 
180 to 200 pounds. 

Wool. — A tuft of compact wool covers the forehead, and there 
is wool on the cheeks, but none on the face. On the legs the wool 



142 THE DORSET HORN 

extends to the knees and hocks, and sometimes from the hocks to 
the pasterns. The growth on the belly is short and thin, and bare 
bellies are not uncommon. In twelve months the wool attains 
about two and one-half inches in length. It is of good conunercial 
quality, but since flocks do not average as much if any more than 
seven pounds per head, the fleeces weigh less than farmers think 
a large sheep ought to shear (Fig. 94). 




Fig. 94. — The Dorset Horn ewe has horns, but they are much more refined than those 

of the ram. 

Markings and Skin. — The face and legs of the Dorset Horn are 
white. The lips and nostrils are free from dark pigment, and the 
same is true of the hoofs. In rams the horns come from the 
crown of the head on a straight line from each other and well 
apart. They are long and thick, and curve backward and around 
spirally, " coming as close to the face as may be without cutting," 
while those of ewes are much smaller and curve slightly backward, 
then outward, down and in, the tips being about level with the eyes. 
Males, unsexed when they are only a few weeks old, develop horns 
of about the same size and shape as those of ewes. 

In presenting a standard of excellence for the breed, the Dorset 
Horn Sheep Breeders' Association, of England, names the follow- 
ing as being objectionable : " Spots on the skin, fleece, or markings 



PROPERTIES 



143 



on the horns, coarse hair on legs, tendency of horns to grow back " 
(Fig. 95). 







Fit;. 9"). — Dorset Horn flock of James Flower (deceased), England. 

Properties. — Tlie Dorset Horn does not rank as high in tjuality 
of mutton as the dark-faced Down l)reeds, but the lambs are favor- 




FiG. 96. — Dorset Horn lambs grow rapidly. 



ably regarded as a meat product, and they grow so rapidly that 
they early develop to marketable weight. 

Dorset Horns are considered hardy, and on either pasture or 
forage crops they are good feeders. They have abundant capacity 



144 THE DORSET HORN 

for feed, and in order to look well, must be fed rather liberally. 
Especially is this true when the ewes have lambs at side, because 
they yield too much milk for their food requirements to be ignored. 

Modern Dorset Horns are famous for their habit of breeding 
earlier than any other of the improved mutton breeds. They have a 
comparatively large number of twins and it is possible to get two 
crops of lambs from them within twelve months. This habit was 
peculiar to the old stock and was made use of during the first part 
of the nineteenth century in the production of what was .then known 
as house lambs. Being disposed to breed early and to grow their 
lambs rapidly, the ewes are unsurpassed as producers of lambs for 
special seasons. When they are bred to Southdown rams the lambs 
are the very best to be had for marketing when young to an ex- 
clusive out-of-season trade. The Dorset Horn-Delaine Merino 
Cross is said to produce a capital farm flock ewe, the fleece being 
heavier than that of pure Dorset Horn and the breeding and milk- 
ing powers almost as well developed (Fig. DD). 

Distribution. — Chiefly on account of tlieir light shearing qual- 
ities, Dorset Horns have not become widely distributed. In Eng- 
land there are not many flocks outside the native home of the breed. 
Of the other countries, the United States and Canada probably 
lead in the number of flocks. The Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders' 
Association, of England, ])ublished its first flock book in 1892. In 
1891 the Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders of America organized, but a 
disagreement among the members in 1897 resulted in a second and 
presumably rival organization known as the Continental Dorset 
Club. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where was the Dorset Horn developed? 

2. Is it a lowland, upland, or mountain breed? 

.3. State the desirable and luidesirable characteristics of the old stock from 
which the Dorset Horn came. 

4. Under what conditions would you consider the Dorset Horn one of the 
best breeds to' raise? 

.5. Would you consider Dorset Horns better able to defend themselves 
against dogs than Southdowns? 

0. Which would grade higher on the open market, Dorset Horns or South- 
downs? 

7. Do you think it would be advisable to raise two crops of lambs from 
Dorset Horn ewes in one year? 



CHAPTEK XVI 
THE CHEVIOT 

History. — The Cheviot is a native of the Clieviot Hills, which 
form about 30 miles of the border country between England and 
Scotland. These hills rise gradually from an elevation of 1600 
feet in the west to a little over 3600 feet in the east. Their flanks 
are scored by deep narrow glens that run in every direction and 
on the numerous smooth declivities, short nutritious grass furnishes 
pasture upon which sheep feed and thrive in spite of storms and 
rough weather (Fig. 97). 

No authentic account can be given of the origin of the Cheviot. 
Like all of the native sheep from which the modern English breeds 
have descended, they come from a stock that was ungainly and 
deficient in mutton form. Wrightson says : " The monks of the 
Middle Ages bred .Cheviots around the monasteries, and to the 
churchmen of Teviotdale are we indebted for the first improvement 
of the breed." Crosses were made with the Leicester, Black-faced 
Highland, and probably the Merino, but the most significant im- 
provement was brought about through careful selection after 1854, 
in which year John Eobson, a great improver of Cheviots, made use 
of rams from Lincolnshire. 

After 1800 Cheviots gained rapidly in popularity in the border 
country and they practically drove their rivals, the Black-Faced 
Highlands from all the farms in southern (Scotland except in the 
more mountainous districts of Ayrshire and Lanarckshire. After 
1860. however, the tide turned back to the Black Faces in those 
districts where conditions were a little too rigorous, even for the 
Cheviots (Fig. 98). 

Description. — The Cheviot possesses the characteristics requisite 
of a hill or mountain breed. Its high shoulders necessary in hill 
climbing, trim build, alert carriage, and active movements indicate 
that it is well adapted to its rugged native home. The face profile is 
Roman ; the eyes are very bright and prominent and the ears are 
snort and erect. In the typical Cheviot the face and liead bones are 
rather prominent and very suggestive of quality. The legs are 
10 146 



146 



THE CHEVIOT 

Fig. 97. 




Fig. 98. 

Fig. 97. — Cheviot ram. The clean cut head, pure white face and short alert ears are 
typical. 

Fig. 98. — Cheviot ewe. Too many American Cheviots tend to have long, coarse 
ears as is the case with this specimen. 



PROPERTIES 



147 



neat and trim, and free from wool below the knees and hocks. 
Mature rams in breeding condition weigh about 175 pounds and 
ewes from 135 to 150 pounds. 

Wool. — The Cheviot has no wool on the head and ears nor on 
the legs below the hocks and knees, but the body is well covered. The 
wool is pure white, about four inches long when of twelve months' 
growth and contains ver}' little yolk. Fleeces weigh from six to 
eight pounds. 




Fig. 99. — Cheviots on the way to market. 



Markings and SHn. — The head and the ears are covered with 
short, hard white hair free from a reddish tinge. Distinct black 
spots often appear on the ears and occasionally on the face, and the 
nostrils, lips, and hoofs are black. The skin is a deep rich pink. 
The ewes are hornless, but not all of the rams (Fig. 99). 

Properties. — Hardiness is the leading property of Cheviots. 
Although a hill breed, they do surprisingly well on the level lands 
of the Corn Belt in the United States. They are distinctly a grazing 
breed, and they fatten quicker on the grass than in the feed lot. In 
regions where the grass is more luxuriant than in their native home 
they are inclined to become larger and coarser than the border 
country Cheviot. 



148 THE CHEVIOT 

Either Cheviot mutton or lamb is of excellent quality, being firm 
and free from an undue amount of fat. Because of their lighter 
weight at maturity, Cheviots have an advantage as mutton in the 
American markets (Fig. 100). 

Cheviot ewes are prolific and, although somewhat nervous, are 
excellent mothers. The lambs are so vigorous that they seldom chill 
and die when born out of doors in stormy weather. They grow at a 
fairly rapid rate, but they do not attain weight and finish as fast as 
some of the Down breeds. 

In England and Scotland, aged Cheviot ewes are taken from the 
hills to the lowlands, where feed is more abundant and here they 
are bred to Border Leicester or Lincoln rams. The resulting half- 
breds are very popular, both as a lamb-mutton product and also as a 
breeding ewe to be bred to rams of the same breed as the sire ; or 

half-bred ew^es may be bred to 
half-bred rams. The half-bred 
is appreciated to such extent 
that a class is made for it at the 
annual show of the Highland 
Agricultural Society of Scot- 
land. Oxford rams are also 
favorably regarded for crossing 
on Cheviot ewes brought out of 
the hills to the lowland country. 
Cheviots have not been used 

Fig. 100.— Cheviot lamb bred by the Univcr- extcnsivcly for crOSS-brecding in 
sity of nhnois. The alert pose is typical. » • , i i i 

America, although some use has 
l)ecn made of them on the western range both in the United States 
and Canada. One serious drawback to putting them on the open 
range is their disinclination to stay in a comparatively compact band 
while feeding. 

Distribution, — Few Cheviots are to be found outside of Eng- 
land, Scotland, and North America. In the border country there 
are many large flocks. In North America there is a sprinkling of 
flocks in Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the east and middle 
western states. The Cheviot Society of Great Britain was organ- 
ized in 1891 and the American Cheviot Sheep Society in 1900. 




QUESTIONS 149 

The latter is an amalgamation of the American Cheviot Sheep 
Breeders' Association, organized in 1891, and the National Cheviot 
Society, organized 1894. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How far is the native home of the Southdown from that of the Clieviot? 

2. What breed lives higlier up in the Scotch Mountains than the Clieviot? 

What breed in the valleys below the home of the Cheviot? 

3. How is the Cheviot different in conformation from the other mutton 

breeds studied thus far? 

4. Contrast the Dorset Horn and the Cheviot in mari^ings and skin. 

5. How does the Cheviot rank in hardiness? 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE LEICESTER 

Two Types of Leicester. — There are two types of Leicester, 
the English or Improved Leicester and the Border Leicester. In 
England, Scotland, and New Zealand, the Border Leicester is re- 
garded as a hreed distinct from the English Leicester, hut in the 
United States and Canada no such distinction has heen made. In 
fact, American breeders have mingled the two types, and in so doing 
some breeders think a better sheep has been secured than either 
the English or Border Leicester (Fig. 101). 

The English Leicester. — History. — About 1760, Eobert Bake- 
well, who lived in central England near Loughborough in the county 
of Leicestershire, began improving the old Leicester sheep. They 
were large, coarse, ill-formed, slow maturing animals with long 
coarse wool and flesh of poor quality. iSTothing is known concerning 
their origin, but probably they were gradually evolved into a type 
considered suitable for a rather fertile country. By the middle of 
the eighteenth century conditions surromiding agriculture had 
changed to such extent that the old sheep were not sufficiently 
profitable. No one was more fully aware of their faults than Bake- 
well, and hence his objects in improvement were well-defined and 
definite. He wanted earlier maturity, more propensity to fatten, 
more carcass in proportion to the live weight, and better quality 
of flesh. These objects necessarily involved improvement in body 
conformation and general quality. In addition, Bakewell linked 
utility of form with beauty of form, and unhesitatingly sought for 
a more beautiful sheep than the old type. 

Bakewell's Method. — For a man of his time and occupation, 
Bakewell travelled extensively in search of specimens which he 
believed would breed toward the type of sheep he wished to secure. 
Just how far away he went for some of the animals he used is not 
definitely known, but very likely most of his selections were made 
in his home community and in nearby counties. He was a keen 
observer of animals and skillful in mating them so as to make 
progress toward the type he desired. So far as is known he was the 
150 



BAKEWELL'S METHOD 



151 



first animal breeder to make deliberate use of in-and-in breediner. 
Instead of selling rams he let them for a season. This gave him an 
ojiportunity to call in and use those whose progeny favorably im- 
pressed him. In his hands the old Leicester sheep was changed to 
a broad-backed, thick-fleshed, easy-feeding, early-maturing breed 
with much less waste in dressing and more quality in their mutton. 
But in getting these things it is said that he lost some of the con- 




FiG. 101. — English Leicester ram. First prize R.A.S.E., 1904, bred by E. F. Jordon, 
England. The English Leicester has a small tuft of wool on the forehead. The long wool 
lies in ringlets or "pirls.'' (From "Farm Livestock in Great Britain," by Wallace). 

stitution, prolificacy, milking qualities, and heavy shearing qualities 
characteristic of the old sort. 

Because of his achievements in improving sheep. Long Horn 
cattle, and other stock, Bakewell became a noted person, and visitors 
from various parts of England and Continental Europe came to his 
place to SCO his flocks and herds. He was genial and charming as a 
host, but evidently he was not fond of telling how he got his results, 
for little is known of the various steps taken in changing the old 
sheep into the New Leicester breed. What he accomplished, how- 
ever, was plainly evident and enough of the principles and methods 



152 THE LEICESTER 

he followed became known to have a " beneficial effect upon all the 
different breeds of domestic animals." 

Description. — The English Leicester is a white-faced breed 
with a very wide, deep, rectangular-like body and a short, thick 
neck which does not carry the head much above the shoulders. The 
general form of the face is wedge-shaped ; the nose is slightly narrow 
and Roman ; the ears, which extend about straight out from the head, 
are well-proportioned and in size harmonize with the size of the 




Fig. 102. — Border Leicester ram. The Border Leicester has no wool on the head, and depth 
of body in proportion to its lengtii and width is not as great as in the English Leicester. 

head. , Mature rams in breeding condition weigh from 225 to 250 
pounds; ewes from 175 to 200 pounds. 

The wool of the English Leicester forms a tuft on the forehead 
and extends below to the knees and hocks. It terminates in " short 
twisted curies " which give a striking and pleasing external appear- 
ance to the fleece. 

Markings and Skin. — With the exception of an occasional black 
speck, the face, ears, and legs are covered with short, bluish-white 
hair, but the hoofs and the bare skin on the nose are black. The body 
skin is pink or cherry in color. Both sexes are hornless (Fig. 102). 



PROPERTIES OF LEICESTERS 153 

The Border Leicester, — History. — The Border Leicester was 
developed by the C'ulh' hrotliers, who lived near Wooler, in the east- 
ern part of the border country between England and Scotland. In 
their community there was a popular long-wooled breed known as 
the Teeswater, from which they selected ewes and mated them with 
Bakewell rams. They continued to use Leicester rams until they 
established a flock of Leicesters of a type which has become known 
as the Border Leicester. 

Description. — According to Wrightson, the Border Leicester is 
" larger and longer than the English Leicester, and the belly is not 
quite so full in outline, being carried rather the more lightly " and 
adding to the appearance of legginess. But the most noticeable dif- 
ferences between the two are to be seen in the head, which in the 
Border Leicester is free from wool, clear-white, liold and carried 
high. The nose is aquiline, the muz/de large, the nostrils wide, and 
the ears erect. As a wIidIc the Border Leicester is of bolder and 
more stylish apjiearance tlian the English Leicester. 

Properties of Leicesters. — None but capa])le, painstaking sheep- 
men should attempt to keep Leicesters, for they are not adapted to 
shifting for themselves over rough ground without an abundance of 
feed and without protection from the rougher elements of the 
weather. They are lacking in fecundity, although under good care 
one hundred per cent land) crops can be raised and the lambs grow 
rapidly. 

Mutton from pure-bred Leicesters tends to be coarse, lacking in 
flavor and too fat. It is best when procured from lambs six to eight 
months old, for then the fat is not so exces8ive nor the joints or cuts 
so large. 

For the purpose of producing fat lambs Tjcicesters cross well 
with Merinos. The lambs grow much faster and develop more ex- 
ternal fat than the pure Merino. This cross was first tried in 
France and from it was developed the Dishley ^lerino, a hardy 
sheep with desirable mutton properties. This same cross has since 
been frequently made in North America, South America, Australia, 
and New Zealand for the purpose of producing lambs for market. 
In some regions Leicesters are crossed with the Down mutton 
breeds, the result being growthy, easy-feeding lambs, good enough in 
quality of flesh to give satisfaction as a mutton product. 

In Nortli England and South Scotland the Border Leicester- 
Cheviot cross is favorably regarded for producing a hardy and 



154 



THE LEICESTER 



prolilic ewe flock for poorer soils. These sheep are so much in 
favor that classes are provided for them at the annual Highland 
Show in Scotland. Either half-hlood or pure Leicester rams mated 
with the ewes produce lambs that are very popular on the British 
markets (Fig. 103). 

Distribution. — Leicester sheep have been sent to all of the im- 



«• 


nn^^ 






/ : 





Fig. 103. — Border Leicester ewe. 



The Border Leicester carries its head higher than does 
the English Leicester. 



portant sheep countries. At the beginning of the nineteenth century 
they were widely distributed in England, but breeders found it better 
to modify the local breeds rather than to maintain Leicesters. In 
many instances they did not take kindly to conditions and it was 
found that their mutton was lacking quality. 

At the present time pure-bred flocks are not numerous in any 
country. In North America they are perhaps more prominent in 
Ontario, Canada, than elsewhere. 

In Bakewell's time, the Dishley Society was organized for the 
purpose of assisting in establishing the new Leicester breed. It 
adopted some almost iron-clad rules and was very influential for 



QUESTIONS 155 

mail}' years. At the present time there is a Leicester Sheep Breeders' 
Society in Enghmtl and the American Leicester Sheep Breeders' 
Association was established in 1888. 

QUESTIONS 

1. When did Bakewell live? 

2. In what ways did Bakewell improve the old Leicester? What did he 

lose in getting this improvement? 
.3. What is known of Bakewell's methods? 

4. Compare tlie English Leicester witli tlie ]?order Leicester. 

5. Compare tlie making of the Southdown with the making of the Leicester, 
(i. Compare the mutton of the Leicester with that of tlie Snffolk. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE COTSWOLD 

History. — The native home of the Cotswold is in the Cotswohl 
Hills of Gloucester, where the land, though not fertile, is rich in 
lime and grows a short nutritious grass. 

As nearl}^ as can be determined the Cotswold Hills formed one 
of the first seats of sheep husbandry in England, and it seems that 
long-wooled sheep have been kept there since the occupation of the 
country l)y the Romans. According to tradition, the sheep gave 
the name to the hills, for the name Cotswold is supposed to be 
derived from two words, " cote," meaning a shelter for small 
animals, and " wold," referring to a wild, open country. The C^ots- 
wold sheep were noted for their long wool, which was in demand 
l)oth at home and abroad. In general appearance they resembled 
the old Leicesters, but they were somewhat superior to them in 
quality of wool (Fig. 104). 

The closing years of the eighteenth and the first quarter of the 
nineteenth century formed the period of transition from the old 
to the modern Cotswold. Imjiroved Leicesters were used by a 
number of leading breeders, who in addition to introducing this 
blood, practiced careful selection, having in view the improvement 
of the form and quality of the breed without diminishing size or 
materially reducing the weight of fleece. Marked improvement 
was secured and the Cotswold took its place beside the Leicester 
as an impro-ved breed. A practice which undoubtedly contributed 
to the excellence and popularity of the Cotswold was the holding 
of annual ram sales on the farms of the breeders. These events 
stimulated healthy rivalry and furnished opportunities for fruitful 
studies of breeding (Fig. 105). 

Description. — The Cotswold is a large, upstanding, up headed 
sheep which resembles the English Leicester, but it is more stylish, 
being about on a par with the Border Leicester in this respect. 
Its head is rather long and the head features are fine in outline. 
The nose is more nearly straight than that of the Leicester and 
the ears are longer, more flexible, and inclined rather upward, 
while the Leicester's ears extend almost straight out from the head. 
156 



Fig. 104. 




Fig. 104.— Prize-winning Cotswold ram. Imported by Frank Harding, Waukesha, 
Wisconsin. The Cotswold is upstanding, high headed and grows a heavy tuft of wool on 
the forehead. 

Fig. 105. — Prize-winning Cotswold ewe. Imported by Frank Harding, Waukesha, 
Wisconsin. Sometimes the face and frequently the legs of the Cotswold are not pure white. 



158 



THE COTSWOLD 



It is somewhat larger than the Leicester, mature rams in breeding 
condition weighing 275 to 300 pounds, and ewes from 180 to 225 
pounds. Highly fitted show specimens frequently attain such enor- 
mous weights as 400 pounds and possibly more. 

The wool on the forehead is much longer than on the English 
Leicester, and in show specimens it is never shorn off and hence 
falls down over the face in long, flowing locks, thus making the 
head very attractive. The wool lies at the surface of the fleece in 
large open curls : it covers the l)ody well and not infrequently 




Fig. 106. — Yearling Cotswold rams in their native hills on the farm of Robert 
Game, England. 

extends as short, downy wool below the knees and hocks. It is per- 
haps somewhat coarser than the wool of the Leicester, but it is 
lustrous and sells well as a long, coarse wool. The Cotswold is a 
heavier shearer than the Leicester. In twelve months the wool 
attains a length of from ten to fourteen inches, and unwashed fleeces 
weigh from ten to fourteen pounds. According to Wrightson, fleeces 
from the best English flocks average nine and one-third pounds, but 
presumably this weight refers to Avashed wool (Fig. lOG). 

JMarl-ingst and Sl'in. — The hair on the face is either white or 
white with light gray specks, and frequently the cheeks -and the 
regions around the eyes are bluish-white. The hair on the legs is 
either white or white and mixed with light gray. The lips and 



PROPERTIES 



159 



nostrils are black as in the Leicester, and so is the skin next to the 
eye. The body skin is a deep, rich pink, approaching red in color. 

Properties. — From its size and nature of fleece, one would judge 
the C'otswold to be a lowland breed, but it is necessary to keep in 
mind that it is a hill breed. In its native home and in similar 
regions it is regarded as unusually hardy for a large, open-wooled 
hreed. It is better adapted to comparatively light stocking on short 
pastures than to heavy stocking on a luxuriant plant growth. When 
exposed to heavy rains its wool parts along the spine and allows 
the water to reach the skin, thus causing colds and catarrhal 
troubles. On this account Cotswolds, although once common, have 




Fig. 107. — Cotswold lambs on ranch of J. R. Allen, Draper, Utah. The Cotswold 
ram is popular in the West, for crossing with Hamlaouillet ewes. The offspring carry heavy 
Heeces of high commercial value and their wool withstands range conditions well. 

almost disappeared from the farms in eastern and central United 
States. 

Like the Leicester, the Cotswold yields mutton of secondary 
quality. It is often too fat, and the muscle fibers are long and 
coarse. 

Cotswold ewes are fairly prolific, and since they yield a large 
quantity of milk and are strongly developed in maternal instinct, 
they are excellent mothers. The lambs are fairly strong at birtli 
and grow at a fair rate, but as a rule they do not become plump 
and firm at an early age. If placed on a fatteuing ration late in 
the autumn they make excellent gains at comparatively low cost. 

When Cotswolds are mated with Merinos the offspring are large, 
hardy, and favorably regarded as producers of both mutton and 



160 THE COTSWOLD 

wool. lu western United States, I'otswokl lilood lias been intro- 
duced into many pure Merino flocks for the purpose of improving 
the mutton properties Avithout sacrificing much, if any, in the value 
of the wool product. Alxmt 1860 to 1870 Cotswold rams were 
used rather extensivel}^ in England for crossing with the Down 
breeds, but this custom has practically died out (Fig. 107). 

Distribution. — The Cotswold is known in all of the important 
sheep comitries, but its distribution is less general than it was fifty 
or more years ago. In England it is to be found chiefly in its 
native hills, whereas a half century ago, there were many flocks in 
outside regions. In the United States and Canada there is a 
sprinkling of flocks. Breeders in Utah ha^'e demonstrated by the 
superior sheej) they have bred that the Rocky Mountain Eegion 
affords locations second to none for the production of high-class 
Cotswolds. 

The Cotswold Sheep Society of England was organized in ]80'3, 
and the American Cotswold Shee]") Association in 1878. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How far from the Cotswold Hills i^ Loiigli borough, where Bakewcll lived? 

2. Give reasons for the disappearaiuc of Cotswold flocks in the Middle 

West of the United States. 

."). How would you distinguish a Cotswold from an Englisli Leicester: a 
Border Leicester? 

■!. Would pure or high-grade Cotswolds be suitable for producing early- 
market lambs ? 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE LINCOLN 

History. — The native homo of the Lincoln is in the low country 
on Die east coast of England in Lincolnshire. Long before the day 
of the improved Lincoln the rich pastures on the Lincoln fens 
were the feeding grounds of long-wooled sheep reputed for their 
great weight of fleece. They were white-faced sheep, coarse, un- 
gainly, and bred for wool with practically no attention given to 
their mutton qualities. They were large consumers of feed and 
matured slowly, but nevertheless, they were popular with Lincoln- 
shire farmers and when the practice of using English Leicester rams 
was l)egun there was bitter opposition on the part of a number of 
breeders. But without losing much in weight of fleece, the offspring 
from the Leicester sire matured earlier and possessed better mutton 
form than the pure Lincoln, and as a result the use of Leicester 
rams continued until the improved Lincoln was finally evolved 
(Fig. 108). 

Description. — There is a strong general resemblance between 
the Lincoln and the Leicester, but the Lincoln has greater size, 
more robust appearance, firmer flesh, and more wool. The head of 
the Lincoln is longer, the face l)roader, the profile of the face fuller 
and bolder, and the ears larger and thicker than in the Leicester. 
The Lincoln lacks the quality of the Leicester, but makes up for it 
in substance. From brisket to twist the carcass is thick and heavy, 
and in these respects it is not surpassed by any breed. Large devel- 
opment in tlie leg of mutton is especially emphasized. Mature rams 
In breeding condition weigh ahout 300 pounds, ewes 250 pounds, 
but highly fitted specimens greatly exceed these weights. The wool 
covers the body and forms a tuft on the forehead, but it does not 
extend over the top of the head just above the eyes. On the legs it 
extends to the knees and hocks. 

The Lincoln leads the mutton breeds for length and weight of 
wool. On the average, the length of staple representing one year's 
growth is a])out twelve inches, and sheep ])rnducing less than eight- 
inch staple are considered unworthy of registration by the Xational 
Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association. The wool is rather coarse, 
11 161 



162 



THE LINCOLN 



but very strong and highly lustrous. Sheep in well-kept pure-bred 
flocks should average fifteen pounds in weight of fleece. 

With the exception of the hoofs and skin at the lips and nostrils, 
the markings of the Lincoln are white. Sometimes a little dark 




Fio. 108. — Lincoln ram, champion at English Royal Show. The Lincoln is the largest 

of the long wool breeds. 




Fig. 109. — Lincoln ewes, chamnions at English Royal Show, 1913. The Lincoln 
grows a tuft of wool on the forehead which is larger than that grown by the English Leicester 
and smaller than that grown by the Cotswold. The long, heavy growth of wool is typical 
of the breed. 



color is seen on the ears and legs. The skin is a very healthy pink, 
approaching a cherry red, in color. Both rams and ewes are horn- 
less (Fig. 109). 



QUESTIONS 163 

Properties. — Lincolns are noted for great size and for weight 
of fleece. Being a heavy feeder it is not adapted to scanty ])astui'es 
and hence it is not a cosmopolitan breed. In such matters as 
quality of mutton, fecundity, and milking properties it is not of 
first rank. 

Distribution. — In England the Lincoln is confined mainly to 
its native home and nearby counties where there are many pros- 
perous breeders. During the past twenty years it has been in strong 
demand in the Argentine for crossing on Merinos, and English 
breeders have carried on prosperous export trade with that country. 
They have also exported considerable numbers to New Zealand 
and Australia. 

On the fertile pastures in the Argentine, the Lincoln-ALerino 
cross makes a large growth and develops the high finish essential 
for the foreign frozen mutton trade. The wool is heavy, long, 
strong and lustrous, but not so desirable in fineness and softness as 
the Australian and New Zealand wools. In New Zealand, the 
I^incoln has been used in developing the new breed known as the 
Corriedale, a sheep derived from crosses between English long- 
wool breeds and Merinos. 

Lincoln flocks are not numerous in the United States and 
Canada, but they can be grown into good specimens in many parts 
of these countries. In Ontario some grand sheep have been pro- 
duced and they can be developed to a high state of perfection in the 
Coast Region of Oregon. Lincolns have been used to advantage 
in the range flocks in western United States, where, because of the 
wool and mutton to be secured, still greater use should be made of 
them, particularly in those regions in which feed is fairly abundant. 

Breeders in England organized the Lincoln Long-wool Sheep 
Breeders' Association in 1892, and the National American Lincoln 
Sheep Breeders' Association came into existence in 1891. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How does the improved Lincoln differ from the old Lincoln? 

2. What of the value of the Lincoln for crossino; purposes? 

3. Where do Lincoln breeders in England find a market for their sheep? 

4. For what are Lincolns noted? 

5. \ATiat sections in the United States are well adapted to pure-bred 

Lincolns? 



CHAPTER XX 
THE ROMNEY MARSH 

History. — The native home of the Koiiiney Marsh or Kent' 
sheep is in southeastern England in Kent on tlie alluvial plain 
known as Komne}" Marsh. This plain, nearly on a level with tlie 
sea and protected from it hy strong walls, has an alluvial clay soil 
with occasional outcroppings of sand or gravel. It is flat and every 
few rods there are open ditches almost full of water, which are quite 
as etfective as fences for keeping the sheep confined to definite areas. 
The climate is moist and in winter, cold, damp winds sweep over 
the marsh and make it an uninviting place in which to live. In 
summer the fine, rich pastures whicii are never turned hy the plow, 
wall carry as many as twelve two-lmndrcd-pound wethers to the 
acre, and even with this heavy stocking it is sometimes necessary 
to put a few l)u Hocks in with the sheep to graze down the grass that 
is beginning to grow long, for utilizing it to advantage depends on 
keeping it grazed close (Eig. 110). 

Sheep have been kept on the Marsh for several centuries. The 
old type, similar in many respects to the old Lincoln, but perhaps 
even worse in its shape, was a coarse, loose-jointed, big-bellied sheep, 
yielding long, coarse wool. Improvement was brought about by the 
use of Leicester rams and careful selection, but it is claimed that 
the modern Tvomney ]\Iarsh does not carry as much of the Leicester 
l)lood as the improved Cotswold and Tjincoln breeds. It was found 
that the intro(hiction of Leicester blood l)eyond a certain iioiut 
])roduced sheep too tender in constitution to withstand the liard- 
sliips attending poor feed on the l>leak, unsheltered winter pastures. 
Through the use of Leicesters, a more compact, earlier maturing 
type was secured, and tlie fleece was improved in fineness and felt- 
ing properties, but reduced somewhat in weight. Romney Marsh 
breeders have shown a great deal of enterprise during the past half 
century in still further improving their breed (Eig. 111). 

Description. — The Eomney Marsh is a large, rugged, rather 
low-set sheen noted for its constitution and streus-th of bone. The 

^ Tlie American Eomney Breeders' Association has adopted the word 
Eomney instead of Eomney Marsh. 
164 



PROPERTIES 



165 



forehead is very broad and the head features as a whole indicate 
the stamina characteristic of the breech A\'ith the exception of 
black hoofs and dark nostrils and lips, tlie markings are white and 
there is no wool on the face or on ihe legs below the knees and 
hocks. As a rule, tliere is a tuft of wool on the forehead. As 
compared with the C'otswold and Lincoln the wool is not so long nor 
as lustrous, but it is thicker on the skin and finer, and the weight 
of fleece about equals that of the Cotswold. 




FiQ. 110. — Roniney Marsh ram owned by Robert Kenward, England. The deep body, 
full brisket and heavy bone are typical of the breed. 

Properties. — illardiness has always been an outstanding prop- 
erty of Roniney Marsh sheep. The old practice of making them 
get all of their feed from the marsh pastures through all seasons is 
still in vogue, and none but hardy sheep can subsist on these pastures 
in winter, for the feed is poor and the ex]:)osure to the cold, damp 
wind is a drain on vitality. No breed is better suited to low pas- 
tures, and it has proven itself adaptable to higher, more rolling 
regions than its native marsh. 

Tt is said that foot rot and liver fluke (liver rot) seldom affect 
Rcmney Marsh sheep and they are regarded as being highly re- 



166 



THE ROMNEY MARSH 



sistaiit to the diseases coinmouly afE'ecting sheep. Since they graze 
and lie singly, they do not taint their pastures to as great extent as 
do sheep that are more gregarious in instinct. 

The Eomney Marsh is superior as a grazing sheep. Big wethers, 
grazing on the Marsh, attain prime condition without the use 
of grain. 

In quality of mutton, the Eomney leads the coarse-wool l)reeds 
and crosses between it and Southdowns or Hampshires are said to 
produce mutton of superior quality. 

Eomney breeders have aimed at a strong lamb to each ewe rather 
than toward a large percentage of twins. The ewes are good 
mothers and suckle well. 



w 


^ 


-.^a 


t^ % 


tiitiit 




m,. . 




jifii 






■m 




1 ' 


~i "H 




Wlft 


m' 


fW 


w 



Fig. 111. — Romney Marsh rams. For a large breed the Romney Marsh is low set. 

Distribution. — During the last twenty years the Eomney has 
become much appreciated in the Argentine, New Zealand, and 
Australia. Breeders in the north island of New Zealand lay claim 
to having developed a more useful type than the English Eomney, 
but this is stoutly denied by the English breeders. As yet Eomneys 
are not to be found in the United States and Canada in large 
numbers, but they have been introduced to these countries and it 
has been found that they do exceedingly well in the low costal region 
of Oregon and on the ranges of Washington. Undoubtedly there 
are many other districts in the United States where they will do 
equally well. 

The Kent or Eomney Marsh Sheep Breeders' Association of 
England was formed in 1895. The American Eomney Breeders' 
Association was formed in 1911. 



QUESTIONS 167 

QUESTIONS 

1. How far is Kent from Lincolnshire? 

2. Compare the properties of the Romney Marsh with those of the Leicester. 

3. Compare the native home of the Cotswold with that of the Ivomncy 

Marsh. 

4. At the present time wliere are tlie breeding grounds of tlie Romney 

Marsh ? 

5. What of the Roiiiiiev Marsli in Nortli .\meriea? 



CHAPTER XXI 

BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN 
THE UNITED STATES 

THE SCOTCH BLACKFACE HIGHLAND 

History. — The Scotch Blackface Highland, or the Blackface as 
breeders frequently call it, is a mountain breed, native to the High- 
lands of Scotland. Its origin cannot be definitely traced, and as 
for the methods used in improving it, Usher says : " The prob- 
ability is that they were allowed for ages to pick up a precarious 
subsistence as best they could, and multiply and replenish the earth 
according to their OAvn natural instincts. No doubt it (improve- 
ment) was brought about gradually liy men of intelligence and 
judgment, in careful selection . . . but as Blackfaced flocks occu- 
pied wide tracts of country where fencing was unknown, the benefits 
of such selection were often, in a measure, lost by the tups (rams) 
being put to them indiscriminately" (Fig. 112). 

Description. — The Blackface is a wild, active, small sheep with 
black or mottled face and legs. In case of mottled markings, the 
spots should be quite distinct, thus leaving the face and legs free 
from tinges of gray. There should be no wool on the head or on 
the legs below the knees and hocks. The wool is coarse, wavy, 
and loose, and when of twelve months' growth, hangs down almost 
to the ground. Ewe fleeces weigh from four to five pounds, and 
two-year-old wether fleeces as much as seven pounds. The make-up 
of the Blackface suggests its adaptability to the difficulties it must 
encounter in its mountain home. The body is short and muscular 
with the shoulders high and " formed for freedom of action." The 
nose is broad and prominent; the eyes are bold and flashing: in 
rams, the horns are large, taking one or more spiral turns, accord- 
ing to age ; in ewes, they are small, flattened and curved, but not 
spirally formed. The tail is short, reaching only to the hocks, and 
it is customary among breeders to leave it undocked. 

Properties. — The Blackface is the hardiest of the mountain 
In-eeds and it thrives best on pastures which require much travelling 
168 



THE LONK 



169 



to obtain food. Hcnco, it is better adapted to the high mountain 
pastures, jdelding moss, heather, and a little grass, than to the suc- 
culent green pastures of lower altitudes. When Blackfaces are 
taken to shelter for fattening, however, they do exceedingly well. 

Blackface mutton is famous for its superior flavor and quality, 
and crosses with either Cheviot or Border Leicester are said to yield 
mutton almost or quite as good as that of the pure Blackface 
(Fig. 113). 

Distribution. — Outside of their native home few Blackfaces are 
to be found. Their mit-^sion seems to be to occupy high altitudes 
presenting conditions too severe for other breeds. Years ago the 




Fig. 112. — Blaokfaced Highland ram. The long coarse wool is typical. Often there are 
areas of white hair on the face. 

(*lieviot threatened to drive them out of the Scottish mountains, for 
they were preferred to the Blackfaces where soil and climate were 
at all suited to their production ; but continuous cold, stormy 
Aveather in 1850-60 and 18fi0-(n killed vegetation to such extent 
that the Cheviots died in great numbers, while the losses in Black- 
face flocks were (Himparntivcly smnll. 

TIIK l.OXK 

The Lonk is a native of the wet, hilly districts of North England. 
It resembles the Scotch Blackface, Imt it is larger, and more up- 
standing, and its wool is finer and heavier. It is a very hardy 
breed and its mutton is of very high quality (Fig. 114). 



170 



BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED 




THE LONK 

Fig. 114. 



171 




Fig. 115. 

Fig. 114. — Lonk ram. The Lonk resembles the Blackfaced Highland but is larger 
Fig. 115. — Herdwick ram. The Herd wick is small and has coarse wool. 



172 



BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED 



THE IIEKDWICK 

The Herdwick is a small hardy mountain hreed that is little 
known ontside of its native region in North Lincohishire, Cumber- 
land, and Westmoorland. The face is either light gray or white, 
and often the wool on the belly is gray, and an all gray fleece is not 
considered objectionable. The wool is coarse and in old sheep 
inclined to be kempy. The rams have horns, ])ut the ewes are 
hornless (Fig. 115). 




Fig. 116. — Exmoor rain. The Exmoor bears some resemblance to the Dorset Horn. 

Herdwick mutton ranks very high in quality. Ewes drafted 
from the pure-bred flocks are often taken to lower altitudes, and 
mated with Leicester and Wensleydale rams for the purpose of 
jjroducing fat lambs. 



THE EXMOOR 

The Exmoor is a native of the hills of West Somerset and 
North Devon. It resembles the Dorset Horn somewhat, but it is 
smaller and the skin at the muzzle is black. 

It is a hardy breed and one of the best to place on poor natural 
pastures. The ewes are good mothers, and after raising three crops 



THE DORSET DOWN 173 

of lambs in the hills they are sent down lo the low country to raise 
market lambs (Fig. 116). 

Till': AVELSir MOUNTAIN 

The Welsh Monntain is a very old breed native to the highest 
hills of Wales. It is a small hardy sheep with white or tan mark- 
ings and fine, dense wool which is not altogether free from kemp. 
In conformation, it is a rather long, narrow sheep, and light in the 
fore quarters. The ewes are hornless, but the rams have strong 
curved horns. The mutton is of such quality as to rank with 
Southdowns and Blackfaced Highlands. 

In disposition the Welsh Mountain is wild and restless, and hard 
to keep within fenced enclosures. The ewes are good mothers and 
they are taken to lower ground in large numbers to raise fat lambs 
(Fig. 117). 

Till-: UYELAND 

The K'yeland oi-iginated in Herfordshire, early in the nineteentli 
century, from crossing Ijeicesters on a small white-faced ]KiUetl 
breed that produced about two pounds of exceedingly tine wool. 
The Leicester cross improved the size of body and weight of fleece 
without materially reducing the quality of mutton, fineness of 
wool, and hardiness, characteristic of the old breed. In conforma- 
tion, the Ryeland resembles the earlier type Shropshire so much, 
that it has been spoken of as the white-faced Shropshire. Its lambs 
grow rapidly and liyeland rams are known to be good sires of lambs 
intended for market. 

Kyeland flocks are to be found mainly in Herfordshire. At 
one time they were largely replaced by floeks of the Down breeds, 
but in recent years the Hyehind has been regaining its old-time 
popularity (Fig. 118). 

THE DORSET DOWN 

The Dorset Down originated in Dorsetshire from original stocks 
that closely reseml)led the ])nront sto<'k of the Hampshire. In fact 
the Dorset Down is a modified Hamj)shire which Dorsetshire farmers 
liave found suitable to their conditions. It is smaller than the 
Hampshire and more refined in head and bone. The face, ears, 
and legs are lighter in color, being a grayish-brown, rather than a 
deep brown, bordering on black. 

Dorset DoAvns are adapted to grazing either on pastures or on 



174 BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED 

Fig. 117. 



Fig. 118. 

Fig. 117. — Welsh Mountain ram. , . , , , ^< t^ ^ j ui 

Fig. 118. — Ryeland ram. Except for its white face and legs the Ryeland resemblea 
the earlier type Shropshire. 



THE DEVON LONG WOOL 175 

forage crops where the hurdling system is in vogue. Their mutton 
is said to he of excellent quality. 

Wallace states that they shear ahout five pounds/ hut he very 
likely refers to washed wool (Fig. 119). 

Tine KKltUY HILL (wALES) 

The Kerry Hill is a hreod that has heen developed in Wales 
since 1810, from a stock that was more or less of a mountain tyi)e. 
In general appearance it looks like a grade Down sheep, hecause its 
face, legs, and ears are speckled black and white. Its fleece 
I'esembles that of the Shropshire, but it is not so good in quality. 
Horns in either sex are objeetional)le, but sometimes they appear 
in rams (Fig. 1"^0). 

In size, the Kerry Hill about e([uals the Shropshire. It is hardy 
and produces a superior quality of mutton. The ewes are excellent 
mothers and in grazing districts, they are sought after as producers 
of fat laml)s. 

tup: wensleydale 

The Wensleydale sheep was made l)y crossing English Leicesters 
on native sheep in Yorkshire. It is a large, long, upstanding, firm- 
fleshed sheep, growing long wool which is very lustrous and which 
separates into distinct wavy locks or staples. The skin on the face, 
ears, and legs of the Wensleydale has a decidedly bluish tinge, and 
frequently this shade of color extends all over its body. 

For a long-wool breed, the mutton of the Wensleydale is of good 
(|ualitv. It is an active, hardy breed, but a little slow in niMturing 
(Fig.'l-?1). 

THE nEVOX LONG WOOL 

The Devon Long Wool is a very large, coarse-wool breed of 
sheep that is kept in large numbers in Devon and Somerset. It 
was made by crossing English Leicesters and possibly Lincolns on 
two old native breeds, the " Southern Notts," and " Bampton 
Xotts." These were large, coarse sheep that produced long, heavy 
fleeces. 

MVallace, " British Breeds of Live Stock," 1913. 



176 BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED 




Fig. 119.— Dorset-Down ram. The Dorset-Down resembles the Hampshire,; but is 
smaller and more refined in general features. 




Fig. 120.— The Kerry Hill Ram. 



Fig. 121. 




Fig. 122. 



12 



Fig. 121. — Wensleydale ram. 
Fig. 122. — Devon long wool ram. 



178 BRITISH BREEDS NOT WIDELY DISTRIBUTED 

Fia. 123. 




Fig. 124. 

FiQ. 123. — South Devon ram. 
Fig. 11!4. — Dartmoor ram. 



QUESTIONS 179 

The South Devon, which resembles the Devon Long Wool, is a 
breed that is kept in Cornwall and South Devon. It is said to be 
robust in constitution and adapted to either grazing or feeding on 
forage crops between hurdles. 

The Devon Long Wool, the South Devon and also the Dartmoor 
resemble the Lincoln in many respects (Figs. 122, 123, and 124). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which breeds mentioned in this cliapter are mountain breeds? Hill 

breeds ? Lowland breeds ? 

2. Which breeds resemble the Down breeds? The Lonp wool breeds? 

3. How are mountain breeds different from Hill and Lowland breeds? 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE CORRIEDALE 

History. — The Corriedale is regarded as a new breed, having 
been developed in New Zealand since 1880. Prior to this time most 
of the sheep in Xew Zealand were pure Merinos, but when it became 
possible to ship frozen carcasses to London, New Zealand sheepmen 
realized the need of producing sheep of better mutton cpiality. Ac- 
cordingly, rams of the various English mutton breeds were placed 
with the Merino flocks. It was found that the crosses between the long- 
wool mutton breeds and the Merino produced the kind of sheep best 
suited to New Zealand conditions. These half-breeds grew rapidly 
upon the luxuriant pastures, yielded a heavy fleece of valuable wool, 
and developed a carcass of high finish and quality. No known 
breed of sheep seemed so well adapted to certain New Zealand con- 
ditions as they, and so a number of breeders set about to fix a type 
similar to these cross-bred sheep. Lincohi rams and some Leicesters, 
but to a lesser extent than Lincoln, were crossed upon Merino ewes 
and after close culling toward the type desired, the hybrids (half- 
breds) were mated together. In each generation close culling was 
practiced, and as a rule each breeder limited his selections of breeding 
stock to his own flock. That this procedure in breeding has brought 
gratifying results is indicated by the fact that it is now claimed 
that the Corriedale shows no more variation in type than exists in 
man}^ of the older breeds (Fig. 125). 

Description. — In all essential characteristics the Corriedale is 
a blend between the fine-wool and coarse-wool types from which it 
came. In mutton conformation and disposition to fatten it is 
superior to the Merino, but not equal to the Lincoln or Leicester. 
Its wool being of medium quality, strong, even in structure, com- 
paratively light in yolk, and three inches or more in length, fulfills 
the requirements of the wools bringing the highest price on the 
markets. The fleeces average from ten to twelve pounds in weight. 

The face, ears, and legs of the Corriedale are white. Both sexes 
are hornless, but there is a tendency for horns to appear in the rams 
(Figs. 12G and 137). 
180 




Fig. 125. — Corriedale ram bred by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and sold at 
auction for $275 in Salt Lake City, Auj/ust, 1917. The Corriedale was develoijed from 
cross-bred sheep produced by mating English Long Wool rams with Merino ewes. 




Fig. 126. — Corriedale stud rams. Property of Leonard White, New Zealand 



182 



THE CORRIEDALE 



Properties. — Corriedale mutton is better than that from any of 
its parent breeds. It is thicker and fatter than Merino mutton and 
free from the coarseness and excessive fatness characteristic of the 
mutton produced by Lincolns and Leicesters. On the great Smith- 
field market, London, Corriedale lamb carcasses are known as 
Canterbury lambs. As a rule, they show the finish and quality 
characteristic of prime carcasses. 




> iL,. 1.^1. — Corriedale ewe, chaiiipiua ut Clirist Church, New Zealand. 

It is said of Corriedale ewes that they are prolific, and that 
120 per cent lamb crops are not uncommon. It is also claimed for 
Corriedales that they are adaptable to different climates, as is 
shown by their ability to thrive on mountains six to seven thousand 
feet above sea level, and also in the arid troj)ics of Queensland, 
Australia. The United States Government and a few private com- 
panies have imported a number of rams and ewes for the purpose 
of determining whether or not they are adapted to the climate and 



QUESTIONS 183 

methods of sheep liusbandry on the western ranges, where much 
interest is being taJcen in types similar to the Corriedale. 

Distribution. — Very few Corriedale flocks are to be found out- 
side of Xew Zealand and Australia. The first flock book for the 
breed was published in New Zealand in 1911. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What circumstances led to the development of the Corriedale? 

2. By what methods of breeding was it evolved? 

3. Do you know of breeds that have been developed by tlie same methods 

as those used in developing the Corriedale? 

4. Why is the Corriedale being tried in the United States? 

5. Discuss the mutton and wool properties of the Corriedale. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE AMERICAN TUNIS 

History. — In the Arizona Experiment Station Bulletin fiO Pro- 
fessor F. W. Wilson gives the following account of the American 
Tunis : 

" The history of Tunis sheep in America dates from 1799, when 
General William Eaton, U. S. Co-nsul at Tunis, bought ten head of 
the fat-tailed sheep of that country from the Bey of Tunis and sent 
them to America on the man-of-war Sophia. Only one pair, Car- 
melli and Salena, survived the voyage. They were placed on the 
farm of Judge Richard Peters, of Belmont, near Philadelphia, and 
lived to a ripe old age, when both were killed by dogs. Selena raised 
her last lamb in her sixteenth year. 

"Judge Peters offered the free use of his rams to breeders, and 
was so well patronized that, in a short time, flocks had found their 
way to Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia. During the Civil War 
the breed was exterminated with the exception of the sheep held by 
Col. Maynard R. Spigler, of Columbia, South Carolina. The 
present Tunis blood in America has been preserved through this 
flock of Colonel Spigler, who bred them for over fifty years. Several 
other importations of Tunis sheep have been made; namely, in 
1806, by Commodore Barron, of the U. S. Navy, to Virginia and 
the District of Columbia ; later, a ram and a ewe by President Jef- 
ferson, and, in 1825, thirteen head to New York, one pair of which 
was sent to General Rensselaer, of Albany. 

" In 189-1:, J. A. Guilliams, through correspondence with Colonel 
Washington Watts, of Laurens, South Carolina, learned of the flock 
of pure-blood Tunis sheep on the plantation of Colonel Spigler. 
He bought ten head and ship])ed them to Putnam County, Indiana. 
They were exhibited at the fair at Crawfordsville, Indiana, where 
they attracted much attention. Their quaint conformation and 
lack of wool, however, gave them an unfavorable introduction. 
Nevertheless, Charles Roundtree, near Crawfordsville, Indiana, who 
is now the largest breeder of Tunis sheep in America, purchased 
additional animals from the Spigler flock, and with several other 
farmers became interested in the breed. He conceived the plan of 
184 



Fig. 128. 




Fig. 129. 



Fig. 128. — American Tunis ram. The hair on the face and legs of the Tunis ia usually 

reddish brown. 
Fig. 129. — American Tunis ewe. The long pendulous ears are typical of the breed. 



CHAPTER XXIY 
BREEDS OF THE WOOL TYPE 

All of the existing wool breeds have descended from the Merinos 
of Spain, hence wool sheep and Merino sheep are practically synony- 
mous terms. Outside of Spain, distinct types have ])een developed in 
Germany, France, Australia, and North America. 

Origin of Merinos. — There is no definite information as to 
just how the Merino came into existence, but it is thought that it 
was developed from sheep imported into Spain from Italy and 
Northern Africa centuries ago. There were two great groups of 
Merinos in Spain, the Estantes, or stationary flocks, and the Tran- 
shumantes, or travelling flocks. The latter, owned by the nobility 
and the clergy, outnumbered the former four to one and were con- 
sidered the more important. They were maintained in very large 
flocks numbering into the thousands, and they were handled by 
shepherds who herded them over a range of two or three hundred 
miles, so that they obtained their living almost entirely by grazing. 
The owners of these flocks did not make a practice of going to out- 
side sources for their breeding stock ; hence each flock possessed a 
type peculiarly its own. Yet all of them were maintained for the 
distinct purpose of producing fine wool. 

Merinos in Various Countries. — When other countries took up 
Merinos they drew from various flocks in Spain, and in many cases 
Spanish types were commingled to breed the kind of sheep most de- 
sired. In Saxony, Germany, close attention was given to fineness 
of fleece, the result being the Saxony Merino which possessed wool 
finer than any produced by the Spanish flocks. In France attention 
was given to size and form in the hope of producing both mutton 
and fine wool; the result was the Eambouillet, now famous as a 
large mutton-type Merino. In Australia three types were developed : 
one comparatively small and growing very fine wool impregnated 
with much yolk or oil ; another a large, robust sheep having coarser 
and longer wool and much less yolk ; and the third a type midway 
between the two already mentioned. In North America emphasis 
was first placed upon weight, length and fineness of fleece, the result 
188 



QUESTIONS 189 

being the Americau Merino, a rather small sheep with great folds or 
wrinkles on the neck and body, and dense fine wool heavily impreg- 
nated with yolk. Another evolution was the American Delaine, 
with a smooth mutton-like body and long, fine wool suitable for 
combing into worsteds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Review Chapters I, III, and VI for additional information on Merinos. 

2. Where did Spanish breeders procure breeding stock? 

3. Can you give reasons why various countries developed special types of 

Merinos ? 

4. Select a characteristic which you think distinguishes the Merino from 

all other strains of sheep. 



CHAPTEE XXV 
THE AMERICAN MERINO 

History. — Importations. — Merino sheep were brought to the 
United States as early as 1793, but they did not begin to get a 
substantial footing in this country until commercial difficulties 
arose with England and France in 1807. In that year the Embargo 
Act was passed and wool soon rose to one dollar per pound. This 
started a boom for Merinos which resulted in the importation of 
6000 to 8000 head in 1809, 1810, and 1811. Before the close of the 
War of 1812, wool sold for two and one-half dollars per pound. 
During the period, 1808-1813, it was no unusual thing for im- 
ported Merino rams to sell for a thousand dollars each and ewes 
sometimes sold for as much. Then came the Peace of Ghent (1815) 
which reopened commerce and practically ruined the infant manu- 
factures of the United States. The decline in value of raw wool 
was so violent that before the close of the year 1815, pure-bred 
Merino sheep sold for one dollar per head. According to Randall, 
wool did not materially rally in price for nine succeeding years, and 
during that period most of the full-blood flocks of the country were 
broken up or adulterated in blood. 

Stephen Atwood. — During those dark and discouraging years 
one man, however, held on faithfully to his Merinos and pursued a 
definite policy in breeding. This was Stephen Atwood, of Wood- 
bury, Connecticut. For foundation stock, Mr. Atwood purchased a 
six-year-old ewe in 1813 and five ewe lambs in 1810. These females 
were descendants of the very choice sheep imported by Colonel 
David Humphreys, of Derby, Connecticut, in 1802. All of Atwood's 
breeding rams were also descendants of Humphrey's stock and when 
he could no longer find pure Humphrey's blood in other flocks, he 
resorted to his own for sires. He was a progressive breeder, pro- 
ducing better and better sheep as years advanced, but his great 
contribution to the evolution of the American Merino lay in the 
fact that he preserved a pure strain of Spanish Merinos through a 
dark period when all but a very few either crossed their Spanish 
sheep with Saxony Merinos or in various ways permitted their 
flocks to degenerate. 
190 



POPULARITY OF THE HAMMOND SHEEP 191 

Edwin Hammond,^ of Middlel)ury, Vermont, a customer of 
Atwood for the first time in 1844, is regarded as liaving done more 
than any other one breeder in developing the American Merino. 
Randall said of him that he effected quite as much of an improve- 
ment in the American Merino as Mr. Bakewell effected among the 
long-wool sheep of England. Using Atwood sheep, he wrought 
great improvement in both form and fleece in a comparatively short 
time. He purchased " Old Black " in 1849, a sheep described as 
being " long, tall, flat-ribbed, rather long in the neck and head, 
strong-boned, a little roach-backed, deep chested, and moderately 
wrinkled ; his wool was about an inch and a half long, of medium 
thickness, extremely yolky, and dark colored externally; face a little 
bare and not much wool on shanks. He weighed about one hundred 
and thirty-five pounds and cut about fourteen pounds of wool 
unwashed." Contrast with " Old Black " the ram " Sweepstakes " 
bred by Hammond in 185G and regarded by many as one of the best 
he produced. " Sweepstakes " weighed about one hundred and 
forty pounds and was almost perfect in form, being defective in no 
essential particular. His head and belly were admirably covered 
and he was strongly wooled to the feet. In full fleece, his wool 
was two and one-half inches long, fine and extremely even, and he 
yielded a year's growth weighing twenty-seven pounds. 

Popularity of the Hammond Sheep. — Prominent breeders 
began to be attracted by Mr. Hammond's sheep about 1850. In a 
few years they were eagerly sought by both home and foreign breed- 
ers. On several occasions he could have sold his breeding rams for as 
much as $2500 each. So many visitors came to his place that his 
hospitable home is reported to have resembled a prosperous hotel. 
Through the hundreds of people who inspected his flock and the 
many sheep he distributed far and wide, the distinctive type he 
bred came to be pretty generally known and was regarded as better 
suited to American conditions than the old Spanish type. 

As suggested elsewhere in this chapter, Mr. Hammond's sheep 
were different from their Spanish ancestors, both in form and fleece. 
They were thicker, shorter in neck and legs, stronger in bone, and 
somewhat heavier. They were more nearly perfect in wool covering 
and much superior in length, density, fineness, and weight of fleece. 

* Associated with Edwin Hammond was his brother William, who acted 
as shepherd and manager. 



192 THE AMERICAN MERINO 

Their greater weight of fleece was due not only to increased density 
and length of wool, but also to the development of larger and more 
wrinkles or folds in the skin, thus giving a greater surface upon 
which to grow wool. 

Other Pioneer Breeders. — Although the prominent part Ham- 
mond had in developing the American Merino is generally acknowl- 
edged, it is perhaps too sweeping to say that it originated solely 
from his work. For, during his time and shortly after, there were 
a number of capable breeders who deserve mention as belonging in 
the pioneer ranks. Not all of them can be mentioned here, but 
important ones include the names of Charles Rich, of Shoreham, 
Vermont, and his sons, John T. and Charles, and also his grand- 
sons, J. T. and Virtulan ; Tyler Stickney, also of Shoreham, and 
William R. Sanford, of Orwell, Vermont. All these stand out 
prominently in the history of the American Merino. For years 
Vermont was a Mecca for Merino breeders in search of stud stock, 
but there were many splendid flocks further west in New York, 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and a few in Illinois and Wisconsin. 
In fact, in order to be just to New York, Ohio, and Michigan, they 
should be mentioned with Vermont as the regions in which the 
American Merino attained its highest degree of perfection 
(Fig. 131). 

Description. — A single description will not fit the American 
Merino of to-day, or of any other time for that matter. This is 
true because breeders vary type somewhat with respect to form of 
Ijody, wrinkles or folds in the skin and properties of fleece. Ham- 
mond kept three strains of blood, the rej)resentatives of which were 
said to be easily distinguishable because of differences in external 
characters. In the best of flocks three types are usually to be 
found. These have come to be known as the A, B, and C types. 
Since they come from the same parent stock, they are very much 
alike in many respects. The rams, as a rule, have heavy, spirally- 
turned horns and the ewes are hornless. The hair on face, ears, 
and legs is white, fine and silky, although reddish-brown spots 
sometimes appear around the muzzle and eyes, and on the ears ; the 
lips, nostrils, and skin are deep pink and the hoofs are white. The 
wool completely covers the body and extends well over the face and 
legs, and although it' varies with each type in length, density, fine- 
ness, and amount of yolk or oil, it has a marked resemblance in all 
three types. The wool is very fine and uniform in structure, as is 



THE A-TYPE 



193 



indicated by the evenness with which the waves or crimps are 
carried along the wliole length of the fibers ; and there is an unusual 
degree of uniformity of fineness of fibers throughout the fleece. In 
the best specimens there are no kempy fibers, that is, coarse, hair- 
like fibers and bluish-white, structureless, tender fibers that will 
not take the vegetable dyes used in coloring wool. Because the yolk 
is liquid and comparatively free from coloring matter, the wool is 
a rich, creamy white. This is not true, however, of the external 
appearance of the fleece, because the yolk, upon coming to the 




Fig. 131. — A-type Merinos bred by S. M. Cleaver, Delaware, Ohio. Although these 
eheed are covered with folds and wrinkles they are thick and compact, showing that extreme 
development in wool need not be wholly divorced from mutton qualities. 

outer end of the wool fibers, hardens and darkens into a dark gray 
or brownish-black. 

The A-Type. — Extreme development of folds on neck and body 
is the outstanding characteristic of the A-type Merino. Because of 
its great surface of skin, dense wool, and large percentage of yolk, 
it yields a very high percentage of unscoured wool to weight of 
body. In twelve months the wool attains a length of about one and 
one-half inches. Rams will shear from 25 to 30 pounds of grease 
wool (wool just as it comes from the sheep's back) and ewes from 
15 to 20 pounds, but exceptional specimens have yielded consider- 
ably more than the weights mentioned here. The shrinkage of the 
wool in the process of scouring is often as much as 75 per cent. 

The description already given of the conformation of the wool 
13 



194 



THE AMERICAN MERINO 
Fig. 132. 




Fui. 133. 

Fig. 132. — A-type ram. The A-type Merino is distinguished by the folds and 
wrinkles extending over the entire body. 
Fig. 133. — A-type Merino ewe. 



THE A-TYPE 



195 







Fii;, 134. — B-type Merino ram. The B-type has heavy folds on the neck and few 

wrinkles on the body. 




Fig. 135. — B-type Merino ewe in field condition 



196 THE AMERICAN MERINO 

type in Chapter VI fits the A-type Merino fairly well. Mention 
should be made, however, of its deep body and comparatively short 
legs. Mature rams in full fleece weigh from 130 to 160 pounds and 
ewes from 90 to 125 pounds (Figs. 133 and 133). 

The B-Type. — As compared with the A-type, the B-type carries 
more mutton and fewer folds or wrinkles. Three to four large 
folds are to be found on the neck, fairly prominent ones appear at 
the flanks and around the dock, and a goodly number of small ones 
on the thighs and sides of the body. As a group, the representa- 
tives of the B-type are somewhat fuller in the thighs, wider and 
higher sprung in the ribs, and perhaps slightly thicker through 
the shoulders than those of the A-type. Mature rams weigh from 
140 to 170 pounds and ewes from 100 to 125 pounds. 

In most respects the wool of the B-type is similar to that of the 
A-type, but the fibers tend to be a little longer and there is slightly 
less yolk, which, together with the fact that the surface of the skin 
is relatively less, makes the percentage of fleece to body weight less 
than in the A-type. The average run of stud rams will shear close to 
25 pounds and the ewes aljout 16 pounds (Figs. 13-4 and 135). 

The C-Type or Delaine. — ^The body of the C-type is free from 
folds and only two or three small ones appear on the neck. It is 
considered objectionable if the neck folds are at all prominent on 
top of the neck. As compared with the B-type American IMerino, 
the C-type is more desirable as a mutton animal not only because its 
pelt is smooth, but also because its body is wider, the thiglis better 
filled, and the flesh thicker. Most C-type strains are somewhat 
larger than the A-type sheep. Eams range from 150 to 200 pounds 
in weight, and ewes from 100 to 150 pounds. The rams are both 
horned and hornless, as the owners of the vaJous strains are not 
agreed on the matter of horns in males. iVU of the ewes are 
hornless. 

The wool of the C-type is at least three inches long when of 
twelve months' growth. All things considered, it is the best grease 
wool, i.e., wool just as it comes from the sheep's back, produced in 
America, being fine, strong, soft, and of lighter shrinkage than 
other fine wools. To be typical the fleece should be carried evenly 
with respect to length and fineness over all parts of the body and it 
should extend well over the face and legs. Rams shear from 15 to 
25 pounds of unwashed wool and ewes from 10 to 15 pounds 
(Figs. 136 and 137). 



THE C-TYPE OR DELAINE 



197 




Fig. 136. — C-type Merino ram. With the exception of slight folds and wrinkles on the 
neck the C-type is smooth. 




Fio. 137. — C-type Merino ewe. 



19S THE AMERICAN MERINO 

Properties. — Hardiness is aii outstanding property of all three 
types of the American Merino. The lambs are somewhat tender at 
first, but after they are a few days old they are hardy and no breed 
in America is equal to the Merino for withstanding indifferent care 
and at the same time yielding fairly good returns. Its dense, oily 
coat is a good protection against rain and fluctuations of tempera- 
ture; therefore, it can stand outdoor exposure under conditions 
wholly unsuited to a number of the mutton breeds. The Merino 
also fares pretty well when forced to subsist on a scanty supply of 
feed. Fine-wool breeders have observed that when their sheep are 
given just a little more feed than is necessary for maintenance, 
they produce finer wool than when they are liberally fed. Between 
1820 and 1830, when the Merino breeders of Saxony received great 
prices for their exceedingly fine wool, they resorted to light feeding 
in order further to increase the fineness of fleece. And so accus- 
tomed were the old Merino breeders in the United States to light 
feeding that they vigorously contended that liberal feeding would 
have a pronounced effect toward reducing the vitality of the flock. 

The twinning habit has not been bred into the Merinos, hence 
their prolificacy is not marked, nor are their milking properties any 
too well developed. At birth the lambs weigh about eight pounds. 
They do not mature rapidly, but apparently their longevity is com- 
pensation for their slow rate of growth. Sometimes the ewes are 
not bred until they are well past two years old, but many a Merino 
ewe is sound and in her prime as a breeder when eight years old. 
Because of their slow rate of growth they do not yield their heaviest 
weight of wool until about the third fleece, while in the mutton 
breeds the first fleece is as heavy as any other. 

Distribution. — At the present time, Ohio, Vermont, and New 
York are the strongholds of the pure-bred flocks of American 
Merinos. Because of the demand for mutton they are not as 
popular as they used to be, the A-type particularly, but there is 
fair demand for them in the regions in which they are produced and 
in a few places in the West. Prior to the outbreak of the European 
War in 1914 annual exportations of these sheep were made to 
South Africa. 

The Merino breeders of the United States deserve the compli- 
ment of having developed consummate skill in sheep breeding, but 
they have never been closely and efficiently organized. Such men 
as Atwood, the Hammonds and the Riches, were extremely indi- 



QUESTIONS 199 

vidualistic and, therefore, poorly adapted to promoting a breed 
organization. The strength of their personalities showed not only in 
the sheep they bred, but also in the manner in which the American 
Merino was developed and jsromoted. There came to be known the 
Eich Merinos, the Hammond Merinos and many others, taking, as a 
rule, the name of the man who developed them, and each individual's 
sheep possessed certain peculiarities which made possible their 
existence as a separate family or strain. Then state organizations 
came into existence under various names, some of which suggested 
an attempt to gather all of the breeders of the country under the 
same banner, but if such was the hope it was never realized. What 
more could have been accomplished had breeders efficiently organized 
themselves in a national society is, in part, a matter of conjecture, 
but had such action taken place, surely some of the conservatism, 
which resulted in clinging blindly and doggedly to certain types 
long after their appropriate day, would not have developed. In the 
writer's opinion this conservatism has been responsible to a degree 
for the passing of the Merino from many sections. Had the type 
been modified to more nearly suit conditions it would have stayed 
longer and much to the advantage of the sheep industry of the 
country. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Indicate the formative period of the American Merino. 

2. What circnmstanoes led up to the first wave of popularity for Merinos 

in the United States? 

3. Contrast the work of Atwood and Hammond. 

4. Compare the A-, B-, and C-typea of American Merinos and indicate the 

conditions under which each would be most popular. 

5. Compare the prolificacy of the American Merino with tliat of the 

Shropshire. 

6. Compare the milking functions of Dorset Horns with American Merinos. 

7. Suggest a breed that is more efficiently promoted than the American 

Merino. 

8. What breed seems to you as most unlike the American Merino in rate 

of growth? 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE DELAINE MERINO 

History. — The Delaine Merino is a pure Merino descended from 
the same original stock as the American Merino, but distinguished 
from it by its smooth body and its long, fine wool, which attains a 
length of three inches or more in twelve months. Breeders devel- 
oped the smooth bodies in order to get a sheep suitable for mutton, 
and they bred for long, fine wool with a view to getting a product 
suitable for making worsteds, a type of cloth requiring wool long 
enough to be combed out so that the fibers are arranged parallel to 
each other. 

There are several types of Delaine Merino to which various names 
have been given. These types have been supported by different 
societies, but they are very similar and really should be considered, 
not as separate breeds, but as strains of the same breed. Some of 
the original importations of Merinos were bred to maintain a smooth 
body and a neck with a light fold, which were characteristic of the 
sheep as they were bred in Spain. A notable example was the flock 
of ComiSel Jarvis, but the owners of flocks of this sort did not aim 
consistently at increasing the length of fleece or at improving the 
mutton conformation. 

The breeding which resulted in the development of the real 
Delaine Merino occurred in eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania. 
About 1809, W. R. Dickinson, of Steubeuville, Ohio, got posvsession of 
some of the sheep that Humphrey imported in 1803. He maintained 
these in their purity until 1830, when he disposed of his flock. At 
the time the flock was dispersed, Adam Hildebrand, formerly in 
the employ of Dickinson, bought a few of the ewes, and James 
McDowell, who also had been in the employ of Dickinson and was 
then working for Hildebrand, received as a part of his remunera- 
tion two of the best ewe lambs and the second best ram lamb in the 
last crop bred by Dickinson. These lambs were sired by a large, fine 
ram known as Bolivar, and it is said that they were the foundation 
from which the Dickinson Delaine descended. 

Over in Pennsylvania, the foundation stock was an importation 
made in 1820 by R. W. Mead. The sheep first came into the 
200 



PROPERTIES AND DISTRIBUTION 201 

hands of Alexander Keed, and their descendants were furnished to 
a half dozen or more breeders, who developed important flocks, but 
the final steps in developing the real Delaine type in the Pennsyl- 
vania flocks consisted in using two rams, one being Spanish Black 
Top, a ram bred by C. J. Beal, of West Virginia, and used in a 
flock belonging to the sons of Ebeneezer McClellan, and the other a 
Spanish ram named Victor, bred by J. M. Miller and used by E. 
H. Eussel and J. C. McNary. Just what is meant by the term 
Spanish and Black Top as descriptive of the breeding of these rams 
is difficult to explain, but it seems that Victor and the Beal ram 
more nearly resembled the American Merino in folds and properties 
of fleece than the smooth ewes upon which they were bred. In 
fact many Delaine breeders, after years of experience, have advo- 
cated the use of rams bordering on the American ]\Ierino type, when 
the ewe flock begins to slip backward in weight of fleece. They 
observe that such a cross greatly improves weight of fleece without 
having a material adverse effect on the length of wool and the 
mutton properties of the carcass. In Volume 2 of the Standard 
Delaine Register this statement is made: "It is with great diffi- 
culty that covering and density can be kept up in the absence of all 
folds." And there appears another statement to the effect that 
breeding a ram of the class B Merino on ewes free from folds has 
been most satisfactory and encouraged by Standard Delaine breeders. 

Both the Black Top Spanish Merino and the Improved Black 
Top Merino are smooth Merinos of the Delaine type and should be 
regarded as belonging in the Delaine group. Their distinctive 
character is their very dark exterior due to a rather abundant clear, 
flowing yolk that becomes very dark in color when it hardens on the 
surface of the fleece. These sheep were first selected out from their 
lighter colored flock mates because they seemed more hardy. As 
separate strains they are unusually well developed in mutton prop- 
erties, for they carry even, solid backs and well-filled thighs. 

Description. — The description of the C-type American Merino 
coincides with that of the Delaine. 

Properties and Distribution. — In producing the Delaine 
Merino, breeders have sought to produce a useful farmers' sheep. 
Therefore, they are more prolific, heavier milkers, and more reliable 
mothers than the American Merinos. Also the lambs are stronger at 
birth and hence more easily raised. 



202 THE DELAINE MERINO 

It is doubtful whether a better breed than the Delaine could be 
found for certain sections in Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Vir- 
ginia, and farmers who own them in these regions will do well by 
going slow in deciding to replace them with some other breed. 
Delaines have been very popular in various regions of the West, one 
especially being the interior of Oregon, which served as a breeding 
ground from which sheepmen of Washington, Idaho, and Montana 
drew heavily. 

At the present time it is impossible to make a sharp distinction 
between the C-type American Merino and the Delaine in either 
appearance or breeding. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What characteristics distinguish the Delaine from the A-type American 

Merino ? 

2. What characteristics in the Delaine were of especial importance to 

farmers? 



CHAPTER XXVII 
THE RAMBOUILLET 

History. — The Rambouillet, a pure descendant of the Spanish 
Merino, originated in France. In 1785, Louis XVI, being im- 
pressed by the importance of wool and wool manufactures in the 
industrial growth of his country, asked the King of Spain, as a per- 
sonal favor, for '' permission to import from the celebrated Spanish 
flocks a flock of sheep with the highest quality of fine wool." His 
request was granted, and in October, 1786, 318 ewes and 41 rams, 
representing the best that ]\I. Oilbert, the French agent, could find, 
were quartered in their new home on the government farm at Ram- 
bouillet, near Paris. Henceforth, these sheep were to take the name 
of this farm, which was formerly the property of the Marquis 
de Rambouillet, the famous Savant of the time of Louis the XIV, 
but taken over by the government during the French Revolution 
and ever since maintained for experimental purposes. 

With the possible exception of the Leicesters, no other well- 
established breed of sheep has been developed with as definite a 
purpose in view, and l)eyond any question the progress of any other 
breed has not been so faithfully recorded as that of the Rambouillet 
in its original home. From 1786 to the present time the carefully 
kept records of the French flock have been preserved without a 
break. It is only by taking into consideration the various changes in 
directors, periods of discouragement and depression, and especially 
the recklessness and confusion of the Napoleonic wars, that one can 
realize what it has meant to keep these records. 

The purpose uppermost in the minds of those who directed the 
making of the Rambouillet was to produce a fairly large, robust 
sheep yielding a fine fleece of good weight and a carcass of desirable 
mutton. In other words, they aimed at a dual-purpose sheep. In 
certain periods the emphasis seemed to be laid somewhat more 
strongly on the fleece than on the carcass, and in others the emphasis 
seemed to be reversed, but the net result has been a sheep suitable 
for both wool and mutton. It is doubtful, however, whether the 
carcass was ever developed quite so much for mutton in the gov- 
ernment flock as it was in some of the privately owned flocks first 
of France and later of Germany. 

208 



204 



THE RAMBOUILLET 



Most of the privately owned flocks of France were founded on 
stock bred at Haml)ouillet, and probably all of them secured animals 
from that source. These were either sold or distributed as gifts for 
the purpose of encouraging the keeping of improved sheep. During 
the rule of Napoleon, and immediately afterwards, a great many 
Spanish Merinos were driven into France and blood from this 





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Fig. 138. — Rambouillet ram, B-type; a prize-winner bred by F. S. King Bros. Co., 
Laramie, Wyoming. The heavy folds on the neck and the wrinkles on the body back of 
the forelegs, on the thighs and at the dock indicate that this sheep is a B-type. 

source may have been commingled with that received from the gov- 
ernment farm. 

The Germans got their foundation stock from the privately 
owned flocks of France, but they called it Eambouillet just as the 
French breeders had done. 

Importations to the United States. — Rambouillets were 
brought to the United States in 1840, but at that time the American 



IMPORTATIONS TO THE UNITED STATES 



205 



Merino was coming to the front and the French sheep did not get a 
favorable reception in the East. When California began to be a 
place of importance, shortly after the gold craze of 1849, these 
French sheep were gathered up and sent to the Pacific coast, where 
they served as the foundation stock of the California French 
Merinos. 

Although a few breeders in Ohio and Michigan bred Rambouillets 
in a rather quiet way, it remained for a German, Baron Von 
Home3'er, to introduce the Rambouillet as such to the United States 




Fig. 139. — Rambouillet ram, C-type. Bred by University of Illinois, sold at auction. 
Salt Lake City, August, 1917, for $675. This sheep shows no wrinkles on the body and his 
conformation indicates the mutton qualities characteristic of the C-type. 

and to attract the attention of the sheep breeders of this country 
toward them. This he did at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago 
in 1893 through W. G. Markham, of Avon, New York, who acted as 
his American agent. Baron Von Homeyer's sheep were so excep- 
tional in size and shape that people gazed on them in wonder. To 
the breeders of American Merinos they seemed an almost impos- 
sible creation out of ]\ferino blood. But they were Avhat was wanted, 
for the wool market was depressed and the demand for mutton was 
rapidly growing, and just as soon as the country began to recover 
from the financial panic following 1893 these sheep attained a 
popularity that has never waned (Figs. 138 and 139). 



206 THE RAMBOUILLET 

Description. — Compared with other fine-wool breeds, tlie Kam- 
bouillet is a big slieep, somewhat upstanding, strong in bone, and 
distinctly robust in appearance. It bears evidence of mutton char- 
acteristics in thickness of body and fullness of thighs. The sheep 
with smooth bodies show more mutton than those tending toward 
numerous folds in the skin ; in fact, many of the smooth Rambouillets 
have almost as good backs as some of the prominent mutton breeds. 
Mature rams in full fleece, and in good breeding condition weigh 
from 225 to 250 pounds, and ewes from 140 to 170 pounds. Show 
specimens usually exceed these upper limits in weight, and it is not 
uncommon for pregnant flock ewes to tip the beam at close to 200 
pounds. Most of the rams have large spirally-turned horns, but 
the ewes are hornless. 

In twelve months Eambouillet rams grow from 15 to 25 pounds 
of wool, and ewes from 10 to 18 pounds, but exceptional individuals 
often greatly exceed the upper limits given. The length of fleece 
varies from one and one-half inches to three or even more. The 
wool of the average Eambouillet is not as fine nor is it as even in 
structure throughout the fleece as that of the American and Delaine 
Merino. It is also more often open to criticism in color on account 
of the deposition of gummy yellow yolk. 

Most Eambouillet breeders emphasize great extension of wool 
over face and legs, a matter which has been carried too far for prac- 
tical purposes. Many specimens being completely covered with wool 
over the head and face are blind, and a blind sheep in a flock or 
band is a nuisance because it is crazy. Extreme covering over the 
legs collects mud and snow and hence is an inconvenience. It is 
time for Eaml)ouillet breeders to revise their notions a little on 
head and leg covering. 

The color of hair on face, ears, and legs of the Eambouillet is 
white, and the hoofs are also white. Either deep or light brown spots 
sometimes appear on the lips, ears, and around the eyes, and occa- 
sionally there are stripes of black in the hoofs. These small areas 
of dark pigment in either the hair or hoofs do not amount to dis- 
qualifications, but they are tolerated rather than desired. Soft, 
silky-like hair is regarded favorably, but, taken as a whole, the Eam- 
bouillet does not grow hair on face and legs as fine as does the 
American Merino (Figs. 140 and 141). 

Type. — No standard of excellence has ever been constructed for 
the Eambouillet and, with respect to folds in the skin, the breed 



TYPE 



207 




Fig. 140. — Rambouillet ewe, B-type, bred by the University of Illinois. This ewe is 
what may be termed a light B-type. Note the heavy folds on the neck and the fold dropping 
from the underline. 




Fia. 141. — Ranibouillpt ewe, C-type. Note the smooth mutton-like body. 



208 THE RAMBOUILLET 

varies almost as much in type as the American Merino. Certain 
breeders favor very strong folds on the neck and also a few on the 
body at such places as the dock, upper thighs, and fore and rear 
flanks. Such sheep when shorn may show many small wrinkles 
(called pin wrinkles) on the body. These heavily folded Eam- 
bouillets carry comparatively dense and oily fleeces and the wool 
tends to be shorter than in the smoother types. On the outer sur- 
face of the large neck folds, the wool is often so coarse that it is 
more like hair than wool. This kind of growth has been encouraged 
by a few breeders because they consider it indicative of a robust con- 




FlG. 142. — Rambouillet ewes bred by University of Illinois. The strong, rugged features 
of the head are characteristic of the breed. 

stitution, but it is a bad fault that should be discouraged, for it 
reduces the value of the fleece. 

Certain other In-eeders do not favor the type showing folds on 
the body and still others go so far as to object to pronounced wrinkles 
on the neck. As a rule, the smooth or plain Kambouillets are the 
more popular in the West because, with their better shape and lighter 
pelts, they sell for more as mutton and professional shearers object 
to shearing the wrinkled kind. In Ohio, New York, and Michigan, 
where sheep with he^ivy folds and wrinkles have been kept for a 
hundred years and where there was export demand for heavy fleeced 
sheep before the outbreak of the war, Rambouillets carrying wrinkles 
and folds are favorably regarded. 

Many breeders think they cannot produce heavy fleeces by using 
smooth rams. An inspection of flocks throughout the country would 



PROPERTIES 201) 

probably show that all l)ut a small i)c'rci'ntage of the ewes are eoiu- 
paratively smooth over their bodies and there would not be a large 
percentage with large wrinkles or folds on the neck. In other words, 
breeders differ with respect to type, mainly on the make-up of 
breeding rams used in stud flocks, some being willing to sacrifice 
considerably in mutton for the sake of extreme fleece qualities, 
Avhile others insist upon a well balanced sheep as regards wool and 
mutton (Fig. 142). 

The Ohio State Fair management has provided two classes for 
Rambouillets known as Class B and Class C. Class B includes the 




Fig. 143. — Rambouillet lambs bred by Purdue University, LaFayette, Indiana. Note the 
small wrinkles on the body which disappear as the wool grows longer. 

sheep having the more extreme development in fleece as indicated 
by wrinkles on the body, density and extension of wool over the 
body and the amount of yolk in the wool, while Class C includes 
the smooth sheep carrying only a few light folds on the neck and no 
wrinkles on the body (Fig. 143). 

Properties. — Rambouillet mutton does not rank so high as that 
of the leading mutton breeds, but when well finished it is good mut- 
ton, good enough to satisfy an educated and discriminating palate. 

Of the fine wool breeds, all of which are hardy, none are more 
so than tlie Eambouillet. Being large, strongly muscled, and capable 
of a long stride, they are able to travel far and to handle various 
kinds of forage. The ewes are fairly prolific, and the number of 
lambs, born to the number of ewes bred, ranges from 125 to 150 per 
14 



208 THE RAMBOUILLET 

varies almost as much in type as the American Merino. Certain 
breeders favor very strong folds on the neck and also a few on the 
body at such places as the dock, upper thighs, and fore and rear 
flanks. Such sheep when shorn may show many small wrinkles 
(called pin wrinkles) on the body. These heavily folded Ram- 
bouillets carry comparatively dense and oily fleeces and the wool 
tends to be shorter than in the smoother types. On the outer sur- 
face of the large neck folds, the wool is often so coarse that it is 
more like hair than wool. This kind of growth has been encouraged 
by a few breeders because they consider it indicative of a robust con- 




FlG. 142. — Rambouillet ewes brrd by University of Illinois. The strong, rugged features 
of the head are characteristic of the breed. 

stitution, but it is a bad fault that should be discouraged, for it 
reduces the value of the fleece. 

Certain other breeders do not favor the type showing folds on 
the body and still others go so far as to object to pronounced wrinkles 
on the neck. As a rule, the smooth or plain Eambouillets are the 
more popular in the West because, with their better shape and lighter 
pelts, they sell for more as mutton and professional shearers object 
to shearing the wrinkled kind. In Ohio, New York, and Michigan, 
where sheep with heavy folds and wrinkles have been kept for a 
hundred years and where there was export demand for heavy fleeced 
sheep before the outbreak of the war, Eambouillets carrying wrinkles 
and folds are favorably regarded. 

Many breeders think they cannot produce heavy fleeces by using 
smooth rams. An inspection of flocks throughout the country would 



PROPERTIES 



209 



probably show that all but a small percentage of the ewes are com- 
paratively smooth over their bodies and there would not be a large 
percentage with large wrinkles or folds on the neck. In other words, 
breeders differ with respect to type, mainly on the make-up of 
breeding rams used in stud flocks, some being willing to sacrifice 
considerably in mutton for the sake of extreme fleece qualities, 
while others insist upon a well balanced sheep as regards wool and 
mutton (Fig. 143). 

The Ohio State Fair management has provided two classes for 
Rambouillets known as Class B and Class C. Class B includes the 






^,;^ fij^-^ 




7m 






Fig. 143. — Rambouillet lambs bred by Purdue University, LaFayette, Indiana. Note the 
small wrinkles on the body which disappear as the wool grows longer. 

sheep having the more extreme development in fleece as indicated 
by wrinkles on the body, density and extension of wool over the 
body and the amount of yolk in the wool, while Class C includes 
the smooth sheep carrying only a few light folds on the neck and no 
wrinkles on the body (Fig. 143). 

Properties. — Rambouillet mutton does not rank so high as that 
of the leading mutton breeds, but when well finished it is good mut- 
ton, good enough to satisfy an educated and discriminating palate. 

Of the fine wool breeds, all of which are hardy, none are more 
so than tlie Rambouillet. Being large, strongly muscled, and capable 
of a long stride, they are able to travel far and to handle various 
kinds of forage. The ewes are fairly prolific, and the number of 
lambs, born to the number of ewes lired, ranges from 125 to 150 per 
14 



210 



THE RAMBOUILLET 



cent. They are also good in maternal instinct and fair in yield of 
milk. At birth the lambs are strong and large, averaging about 
10 pounds. If well fed they grow rapidly, and lew if any of the 
mutton breeds produce lambs that increase in weight more rapidly 
after they are four or five months old. 

Rambouillets, like the other fine-wool breeds, stay close together 
when on the open range, and of course this trait helps to make them 
popular in the West. But at present they are more po[)ular in g'jv 




Fig. 144. — Rambouillet ram, Big Chief, bred by F. S. King Bros. Company, Laramie, 
Wyoming, and sold at auction. Salt Lake City, August, 1917, for $1300. This elephantine 
specimen of the breed weighed 375 pounds and walked with ease, showing that he was 
in no -wise fatted to overdone condition. 



range regions than the otlier line-wool breeds, due doubtless to their 
superior size, greater prolificacy, and mutton qualities equal to the 
Delaine and G-type American Merino. Wheu crossed with rams of 
the mutton breeds, the ewes produce excellent market lambs 
(Fig. U4). 

Distribution. — Tiamljouillets are still kept in considerable num- 
l)ers in France and Germany. Of l)oth the older nnd newer countries 
the United States is their stronghold, Imt they have attained promi- 
nence in the Argentine, and South i\.frica is trying them out now. 



QUESTIONS 211 

The American Kamhouillet Sliee]) Breeders' Association is the most 
Ijrominent organization promoting this breed of sheep. 

QUESTIONS 

1. J low was tlie IJamhoiiilU't hnn-d developed? 

2. When and wliy did the llainljouillct become popular in the United 

States ? 

3. In wliat respects do the Rambouillets dilTer from the American Merino? 

4. In what parts of the United States are Rambouillets most popular? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE KARAKUL (A FUR-BEARING BREED)i 

History. — The Karakul - comes from the province of Bokhara. 
Its history is not definitely known, but it is thought that the 
foundation stock was the x\rabi, whose blood has been combined 
with that of the Black Danadar to produce the sheep in the vicinity 
from which the Karakul derives its name. It is said that owners 
of sheep in Bokhara do not follow systematic methods of breeding 
and that on this account the Karakul can be regarded as a breed 
only in a general sense (Fig. 145). 

Description. — The conformation of the Karakul clearly indi- 
cates that it has not been bred for mutton production because the 
top of the body is too narrow and too uneven to permit of a large 
quantity of meat in the regions of the valuable cuts. As a rule the 
leg is lacking in fullness, the rump is steep, the loin high, and the 
l)ack depressed just behind the shoulders. It is characteristic for a 
triangular mass of fat weighing five or six pounds to develop at the 
upper part of the tail, and hang down toward the hocks. Because 
of this characteristic, the Karakul is known as a broadtail breed. 

The wool of the mature sheep is very coarse and wiry, and it is 
brown in color. When the lambs are born, they have lightly curled, 
glossy black coats ; and in order to get good fur they should be 
slaughtered before they are five days old, for if they are allowed to 
live longer their coats rapidly deteriorate as a fur product. 

Properties. — Undoubtedly the Karakul is hardy and suited to 
arid and semi-arid conditions. It has been observed in the United 
States that the lambs grow rapidly until they reach about 100 pounds, 
which is almost the mature weight of females. Whoever contem- 
plates growing Karakuls should bear in mind that althou<xh thev 
are hardy, they have been accustomed to arid and semi-arid con- 
ditions and hence may not do well in a moist climate. In the main, 

^ See account of Karakul in 191.5 Yearbook of U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 

''The word Karakul is derived from Kara Kul, the name of a village in 
the eastern part of Bokhara. 
212 



DISTRIBUTION 



213 



it is 3'et to be seen to what extent they should be introduced into 
countries where improved breeds are widel}^ distributed (Fig. 14G). 
Distribution. — Several countries have recently become inter- 
ested in the Karakul on account of the value of the skins of the young 
lambs. Large numbei's have not been brought into the United 
States because of the long distance from Bokhara, and other diffi- 
culties incident to getting sheep out of that country. About fifty- 
four head have been imported and at present the number of pure- 




Fi^. ii: 



1 ill Kre;it gaudy rump 



breds cannot be large. The pure-bred rams have been ciossed with 
the well-known l)reeds of sheep, such as the Mernio, Cheviot, Lin- 
coln, Leicester, and Cotswold. The best results for fur bearing 
have been obtained by crossing with the long-wool breeds producing 
luster wools, and the poorest with the IMerino cross. Just how 
valuable the crosses and grades are as breeding animals has not 
yet been definitely determined. It seems, however, that half or 
three-quarter blood rams, when crossed upon ewes containing no 
Karakul l)1ood, are of little or no value as sires of fur-bearing lambs. 



214 THE KARAKUL 

Types of Lamb Fur. — The fur taken from young lambs is 
known as Persian, Astrakhan, Broadtail, and Krimmer, and with 
the exception of Krimmer, which is supplied chiefly from the 
Crimean peninsula, it is obtained in large part from the Karakul, 
of Bokhara. Since they have the best defined, most uniform, and 
tightest curl, the Persians are of greatest value. The Astrakhans 




Fig. 146. — Karakul ewe and lamb. The wool of the mature sheep is coarse and wiry, 
but the lamb has a soft, glossy, black coat which can be made into valuable fur if the animal 
is slaughtered when it is only a few days old. 

have less luster or gloss, longer hair, and a more open curl than the 
Persians. The Broadtail skins, which are taken from lambs pre- 
maturely born, are soft, pliable, and light in weight, with shorter 
hair than the Persian, and instead of being tightly curled have a 
very attractive wavy pattern. The Krimmer is a gray fur, while 
the other types are black. 

Lambskins vary greatly in value, according to quality. At the 
annual summer fair at Nijni Novgorod, in Eussia, where prac- 
ticallv all nf tlie Bokhara skins are sold, the average wholesale 



QUESTIONS 215 

value of skills in 1913 was $0.25. By the time they reach New 
York, the best dyed skins sell in small lots at from $13 to $30, 
while the inferior ones may sell for no more than $3. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In wliat particulars is the Karakul diflercnt from any other breed of 

sheep you liave studied? 

2. Where is the native home of tlie Karakul? What of its climate? 

3. When should the Karakul be slaughtered to yield good fur? 

4. WTiat crosses have been made between the Karakul and other breeds 

with a view to producing fur? 

5. W'hat do you think of the Karakul as a mutton sheep? 



PART IV 

THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK 



CHAPTER XXIX 
ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK 

Methods of Establishing the Farm Flock. — There are two 
methods of establishing the farm tioek. One is to begin with a 
few ewes and through increase of progeny gradually build up in 
numbers until the flock is of suitable size. The other method con- 
sists in beginning with as nuiny ewes as the farm should maintain 
in the system of farming being followed. 

F'or the beginner with siu'c|), the iirst mclhdd is the better, 
particularly if he has had little e.\]Jerience with other classes of 
livestock, because in the small flock the performance of individuals 
can be studied, while in a large one observations have to Ije limited 
largely to the performance of the flock as a whole. When the flock 
is small the owner can easily become familiar with the character- 
istics of the best and the worst ewes. He fixes in mind the kinds 
that produce the largest, fattest lambs and yield the heaviest fleeces. 
He also takes note of the kind that remain rugged through a long 
period of profitable production. Then, too, he becomes so familiar 
with each of his sheep that he develops the power to detect slight 
disorders in his flock, aiul this ])ower is a fundamental (|ualificatioii 
of the successful shepherd. 

But not all of the advantage lies with the man who begins with 
the small flock. He who buys a flock of the size he thinks suitable 
for his farm has assurance of keeping his land stocked more nearly 
up to its capacity than can he who adds to his flock slowly. 

He also has an advantage in that he can make more economical 
use of his labor and can market to better advantage. The man with 
the small flock often is embarrassed in attempting to find an outlet 
for the few lambs he has for sale, while the owner of a large flock 
mav have enough lambs to justify shipping to a central market. 

Whether the beginner starts with a few or ^vitli all he should 
ever have, really depends ou whether or not he counts on perma- 
nently staying in the sheep business. If his ])lans are temporary 
and his intentions more or less speculative, he had better begin 
fully ef|uip])ed ; if he aims at permanence he would do well to begin 

219 



220 



ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK 



modestly in order to educate himself through observing the per- 
formance of particular individuals. Should he begin with only a 
few he should plan ultimately to have a fiock of sufficient size to 
make it well worth his while to give it adequate care. When the 
flock is very small, the temptation to neglect it for larger interests 
is strong when labor is costly or scarce. 

Where Ewes for the Farm Flock May Be Secured. — There 
are two main sources from wliicli to draw ewes for the farm flock. 



^-''^m^' 







Fig. 147. 



-Fancy selected native breeding ewes, showin^j uniformity in breeding. 
Station Bulletin 129.) 



(Illinois 



First, they may be secured locally in almost every part of the country 
where farm flocks are kept. Second, they may be purchased during 
the summer and early autumn months on the large livestock markets 
where both native and western ewes are sold as foundation stock 
for farm flocks (Figs. 147 and 148). 

Selecting Ewes for the Farm Flock. — One of the first features 
to consider in selecting ewes for the breeding flock is uniformity. 
They should be as nearly alike as possible in breeding and size 
because uniformity in these particulars is necessary if a uniform 
lot of lambs is to be secured. When the owner has a uniformly 



SELECTING EWES FOR THE FARM FLOCK 221 

good lot of lainl)s ho can market all of them at the >ame time and 
.such lots always meet with ready demand ou the market. Should 
the ewes be very unlike in breeding their lambs are almost sure to 
lack in uniformity, even though they are all by the same sire. Then, 
too, the wool from ewes lacking in uniformity of breeding is likely 
to vary so much in quality that it can not be disposed of to' the best 
advantage. 

Second, ewes selected for the farm flock should be well grown 
and thrifty. Tf they look as though they have been well cared for 
and have had a chance to become fully developed, the owner has 




Fig. 148. — Choice Western breeding ewes suitable fur pri.)ducing prime market lambs 
when mated with pure bred lams of proper mutton type. See lambs from these ewes in 
frontispiece and in Figs. 75, 85 and 89. 

reason to feel that their inherited maternal powers will function to 
full extent. Sometimes stunted ewes are good ])roducers of lambs, 
but more often they are not. It is seldom advisable to start with 
unthrifty females for the reason that they are usually infested with 
internal parasites, such as stomach w'orms, lung worms, and tape- 
worms. Unthrifty ewes may do exceedingly Avell when placed 
where sheep have not been grazed for years, in which case their 
purchase seems to be a bargain, but they are likely to infest the 
pastures w^ith the result that before the owner is aware of it he is 
beset with parasitic troubles (Fig. 149). 

Third, breeding ewes should be not only well grown and thrifty, 
but they should also bear evidence of strong constitution. They 



222 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK 

should be active in their movements and alert to strange sights and 
sounds. They should carry their heads well up ; their chests should 
be wide and their bosoms full; their legs should be fairly short, 
wide apart and placed so that they support the body well. Their 
whole contour should suggest style, compactness, capacity, and 
vitality. Without hardihood and productive power, breeding ewes 
are of little use to their owners, and these properties are not present 
to the fullest extent in ewes having weak constitutions. 




1 iL.. IM i)i.l lliiii 1 Ml - |ia,.-l iliLii (lay of usefulncba lor bi ceiling jiuipubfs-. Asa 
rule such ewe^di) not liavc nmnl icotli nor sufficient vitality for growing either lambs or 
wool. (Ulinoib btatioii Bulletin 120.) 

Fourth, ewes selected I'or raising market lambs should possess 
good mutton form. If they are undesirable in form their lambs, 
even though sired by a ram that is ideal in form, may reach market 
finish and weight too slowly, or they may not be sufficiently good 
in form ever to develop into a choice or prime market product. 

Fifth, ewes intended for the farm flock should have dense, com- 
pact fleeces. Wool, being a non-conductor of heat, tends to lessen 
the effect of sudden changes in temperature on the body and the 
structure of the wool fiber is such that to a certain extent it holds 
water and foreign substances away from the skin. Therefore, sheep 
that are clothed in dense, compact fleeces extending over all parts 



SELECTING EWES AFTER THE FLOCK IS ESTABLLSHED 223 

of the body are much l)etter jji-epared to witlistand tlie hardships 
brought about by changes in weather than are those bearing scant, 
open fleeces. It shouhl also be remembered that even though wool 
may be comparatively low in })rice, it brings in some revenue and 
helps somewhat toward making the flock profitable. The best types 
of wool for farm Hocks are those that grade from " one-fourth 
blood," " three-eighths blood " or " half blood " combing. These 
wools range from two and one-lialf inches to four inches in length, 
and in fineness they corres})ond to the wool produced by the Down 
breeds. 

Sixth, the flock mothers should be of quiet disposition. This 
statement is in no sense a contradiction to what was said in dis- 
cussing the constitution of breeding ewes. We are here distinguish- 
ing between the ewe possessing sense and the one devoid of sense, 
lieject the fools; they are always vipsetting something, most often 
tlie shepherd's temper. 

Seventh, breeding ewes should be sound and in their prime. 
Their teeth should be in good condition, that is, they should be 
intact and not w^orn down short. Their udders should be soft and 
pliable, the teats intact and free from hard cores. Very fat in- 
dividuals should be rejected, for they are either non-breeders or so 
filled with internal fat that their lambs are likely to be small and 
weak. It is not safe to buy ewes that are lame or addicted to 
coughing. As a rule, ewe lambs should not be selected for breed- 
ing, as they are too young to be sufficiently developed at lambing 
time. Hence, they are likely to have trouble in lambing and to be 
deficient in maternal instinct. 

Eighth, the purchaser of breeding females should know his 
needs and select accordingly. If he is in a neighborhood of good 
lamb raisers he would do well to buy ewes that will produce lambs 
about like those of his neighbors. By so doing, he will be in position 
to cooperate with them in the disposal of his lamb crop. If he has 
a great deal of heavy, coarse feed to dispose of he can handle large 
ewes to advantage. If he has hilly, extensive range with sparse 
vegetation, smaller and more active ewes are what he should select. 
If he wishes to engage in a specialized business, snch as winter 
lambs, the selecting of his ewes is a s])ecial problem requiring a 
great deal of painstakinu" care. 

Selecting Ewes After the Flock is Established. — There may 
be two reasons for selecting bn^cding ewes after the flock has been 



224 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK 

established. One is to increase the size ui' the liuck, the otlier is to 
replace individuals which for good reasons should be disposed of. 
For example, it is advisable to dispose of ewes which do not pro- 
duce regularly, that is, raise a lamb or lambs each year. Such 
ewes are often the handsomest in the flock, and because of their 
good appearance the owner may be tempted to keep them, but if he 
acts wisely he will let them go. Again there are ewes inclined to 
breed late and out of season with the main flock. When it is appar- 
ent that a ewe is fixed in this habit she should be rejected, because 
her lamb, coming late, will not be ready for sale when the main 
part of the lamb crop is ready to go to market. Then, also, ewes 
that are failing in general condition should be " culled out '' of the 
flock, because they are becoming more susceptible to disease and are 
likely to get too low in condition to nourish lambs well. 

In case the owner replaces ewes " culled out " or adds to his 
flock with ewes of his raising, he has an opportunity to take ad- 
vantage of several important factors. First, he should select early 
maturing ewe lambs of approved type. By so doing he will accom- 
plish something toward building up a flock which will produce 
early maturing lambs. This is a matter of no little importance, for 
the lambs which grow into a marketable ])roduct in a short time are 
likely to be the most profitable. Second, the ewe lambs should be 
from heavy milking dams. This will be accomplished if early 
maturing lambs are selected l^ecause they are usually well fed on 
mother's milk. But, since desirable milking properties, as such, 
should be sought by the man who aspires to grow a good lamb crop, 
he should know whether or not the dams of the ewe lambs he pro- 
poses to reserve for breeders are desirable milkers. Third, the ewe 
lambs reserved for the breeding flock should be nearly of the same 
aoe, and preferal)ly from the first, rather than from the last of the 
lamb crop. By all means, the very late born ewe lambs should not 
be retained, for there is a tendency for them to breed late and they 
oftentimes fail to develop into large, thrifty ewes. Those of nearly 
the same age may be expected to l)reed at al)out the same time and 
hence contribute toward a crop of lambs that is uniform with respect 
to age. Young ewes are not sufficiently mature to place with the 
ram until after they are one year old. 

Selecting the Ram for the Farm Flock. — The ram should be 
pure bred and of correct market or mutton type. It has already 
been conceded that the ewes of the farm flock are likely to be grades 



SELECTING THE RAM FOR THE FARM FLOCK 225 

which, if true, make it imperative that the ram be a pure-bred. 11' 
the ewes should be pure-bred, it would be ridiculous, of course, to 

Fin. 1.50. 




Fig. 151. 

Fig. 150. — Pure-bred Shropshire ram suitabjp for siring market lambs ancj sire of 
lambs in Fig. 75. f 

Fig. 151. — Pure-bred Southdown ram, sire of lambs shown in frontispiece. 

advocate the use of a grade ram. A pure-bred ram should be used 
in the grade flock because he carries a greater concentration of 
blood than a grade ram. Wlien l)red to grade ewes his get have a 
15 



226 ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK 




Fig. 152. — Pure-bred Hampshire ram suitable for siring market lambs and sire of 

lambs in Fig. 85. 




Fig. 153. — Pure-bred Orford-nown ram which is the sire of lambs in Fig. 



SELECTING THE RAM FOR THE FARM FLOCK 



227 



tendency to resemble him in greater degree than they resemble 
their dams (Figs. 150-153) while such is not likely to be true of 
the get of the grade sire. 

Since lambs sired by a pure-bred ram will so often resemble him, 
it is necessary, indeed, that he be of desirable market or mutton 
type. He should be wide and deep for his length. He should be 
symmetrical, that is, evenly developed. Well sprung ribs, wide 
loin, well-lilk'd thighs, a wide, full twist, and a deep, even covering 
of firm flesh ai'e all ]M)iiits of mutton excellence which should be 
sought. He sliould be active and vigorous in order to sire lambs 




Fig. 154. — Comiiion rams with shallow bodies and narrow chests. Mixed in breeding. 
The kind that should never be used for breeding purposes. 

full of life and vigor, the kind of lambs that will have the advantage 
in the race toward market perfection. Indications of activity and 
vigor are bold, brisk, direct movements, stylish carriage, wide-open, 
bright eyes, wide nose and well-expanded nostrils, deep chest, and 
well-extended brisket. 

As in the case of ewes selected for the flock the ram should be 
well grown, though it is not necessary that he be an unusually large 
representative of his breed. In fact, it is safer to select a ram of 
medium size, since the over-large animal is in many eases coarse, 
and this coarseness, if transmitted, will reduce the value of the 
Iamb crop when it reaches the market (Fig. 154). 

If the owner intends to reserve ewe lambs for breeding purposes. 



228 



ESTABLISHING THE COMMERCIAL FARM FLOCK 



he should select a ram with a compact fleece of good length, quality, 
and weight, but if he j^lans to sell the whole lamb crop he can afford 
to disregard fleece qualities. He can also afford to ignore breed type 
in the ram to considerable extent. It would not be advisable to 
select an individual so badly " off type " that he does not show to 
what breed he belongs. There is often an opportunity, however, to 
buy a ram of excellent conformation but deficient in some of the 
" fancy " points of the breed and such an animal would no doubt 
beget first-class offspring for market purposes. If the ewe lambs 
are saved for breeding purposes it is desirable that the successive 
rams be of the same breed so that a uniform flock may be secured. 




Fig. 155. — Range rams, Hampshires. These rams are pure-breds, uniform in type and 
thrifty and hence highly satisfactory for range or any other breeding for market purpoaes. 

It is Avell to select the ewes before choosing the ram to mate 
with them. If they are inclined to excessive length of neck and 
legs, particular emphasis should be placed on short legs and neck in 
the ram. Whatever the general defect in the ewe flock, an attempt 
should be made through the ram to correct this fault in the off- 
spring. But in so doing, it is not advisable to use a ram with any 
pronounced defect merely because he happens to be strong where 
the ewes are weak. Eemember that the lambs may inherit the 
defects of Iwth parents, hence the necessity of using a sire well 
developed in all his parts. 

Selecting Ewes for Range Flocks. — In selecting ewes for range 
flocks about the same rules apply as in the selection for the farm 
flock. If the range flocks are to be handled by herders on un- 
enclosed land it is necessary that the sheep have enough Merino 



QUESTIONS 



229 



blood to preserve their herding instinct and to prevent their fleeces 
from becoming too open and dry. As range ew&s must be able to 
travel, their feet should be sound and strong. They must also be 
able to withstand rather hard conditions. Knowing this, the range- 
man never selects old ewes. 

Selecting Rams for Range Flocks. — As a rule rams are sub- 
jected to very hard service on the range, and unless they are 
acclimated to range conditions, they are likely to be of little use. 
All those qualifications wliich are indispensable in the rams for 



.*as^?tf' 




Fig. 156. — Range rams, Rambouillets, bred by Butterfield Livestock Company, Weiser, 

Idaho. 

farm flocks must also be possessed by the ram selected for the range 
flock, with special emphasis placed upon activity and hardiness 
(Figs. 155 and 156). 



QUESTIONS 

1. What are the methods of establishiiif? farm flocks? 

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method; which 

method would you follow were you establishing a flock? 

3. Where would you secure ewes to establish a farm flock? 

4. Name the features to consider in selecting the ewes. Discuss each. 

5. After the flock is once established need the owner practice selection? 

Why? 

6. What are the advantages of raising your own ewe laml)s? 

7. Disciiss the selection of the ram. 

8. When is it necessary to pay particular attention to the cliaractcr of the 

ram's fleece? 



CHAPTER XXX 
THE BREEDING SEASON 

Condition of the Ewes. — To be in proper condition at mating 
time, ewes should be gaining rather tlian losing in weight. When 
they are thriving instead of " standing still " or " going back " in 
condition, they are more likely to come in heat and the whole flock 
will breed within three or four weeks. As a result the owner suc- 
ceeds in having the lambs come at the time desired and, since they 
are all of about the same age, they develop into a uniform lot with 
respect to size. It is also reasonable to suppose that the condition 
of the ewes at the time of mating will have an influence on the 
number of offspring she will produce, for if she is well supplied with 
healthy blood and gaining in weight slie will likely secrete more 
reproductive cells (ova) than she would were she in unthrifty con- 
dition. But should this not be true, it is certainly true that the 
healthy, thriving ewe at mating time is in proper condition to give 
the developing foetus a good start toward becoming a lusty, vigorous 
offspring at birth (Fig. 157). 

How to Condition the Ewes. — As the time for breeding ap- 
prc^aches, ewes that have raised lambs are often in thin condition, 
I ut since the breeding season usually comes at a time when the days 
and nights are liecoming cooler, all healthy ewes are disposed to take 
on flesh if sufficient feed is available. PTence, about ten days before 
the ram is to be turned with them, it is advisable to begin giving 
them extra feed by turning them into more luxuriant pasture than 
they have had, or by giving them a light grain ration of about one- 
half pound per head daily in addition to their usual pasture. 

Pumpkins broken and scattered over the pasture serve as a 
supplement to it, and when fed in this way furnish a means for 
" flushing," as this practice of stimulating the ewes with extra feed 
is called. Fresh growths of rape can also he utilized to advantage. 
In England, white mustard seed is frequently mixed in the feed for 
the purpose of inducing the ewes to come in heat, and there are also 
other stimulants, but natural feeds should be tried before these 
more or less artificial measures are employed. 
230 



PREPARING THE EWES FOR MATING 



231 



Very succulent grazing, such as green second-growth clover, even 
though it be of rampant growth, is not very satisfactory for ewes at 
breeding time. They do not improve in condition on such feed to 
any great extent and they often come in heat several times before 
getting in lamb. As regards other green growths, however, there 
is no other way of flushing which is more efficient or as convenient 
as turning the ewes in on a fairly liLXurient pasture of bluegrass, 
timothy, of mixed grasses. 

Sometimes good producing ewes are inclined to be overfat. 
They should be kept on very scant grazing for some time before the 
breeding season, and then, about the time the breeding season begins, 
placed on good feed. 



>"r^J,''^^^:7 ' 




Fiii. 157. — These ewes being thrifty ;uid gaining in flesh are in proper condition for mating. 

Feeding the Ewes Just after Mating, — Mansell, a prominent 
English authority, advocates kee{>iiig ewes on a rather scant ration 
for several days after they are mated with the rams. He thinks that 
continuing them on abundant and sitimulating feed causes them 
to recur in heat two or three times and thus the time of becoming 
pregnant is delayed. 

Preparing the Ewes for Mating. — If the owner wishes to 
keep an accurate breeding record, he should place numbered metal 
tags in the ears of the ewes and on their sides he should stamp num- 
bers corresponding with those on the tags with either wood or iron 
stencils. Then by turning the ram in with the ewes for an hour 
or so each dav the owner can manage to keep a record of the service 
(Fig. 158). "^ 

Tt is always well to clip the wool close around the docks of the 



232 



THE BREEDING SEASON 



ewes; it prevents them from befoulmg themselves and removes ob- 
stacles for the ram in serving. In case ewes are very fat and gaudy 
at the rump, the wool should also be clipped close on the top of the 
rump (Fig. 159). 

Condition of the Ram. — The ram should be active, vigorous 
and in medium flesh during the breeding season. To do effective 
service, he should be strong in his pasterns and well supported by his 
hind legs (Fig. IGO). 



Fig. 158. 



Fig. 159. 




Fig. 158. — It is easy to record the date of breeding of a ewe with stencil mark on 
her side. 

Fig. 159. — A ewe thus trimmed around the dock is properly prepared for mating 
with the ram. 

Feed and Exercise. — In many flocks the ram is turned in with 
the ewes and allowed to go without any special attention. Such a 
method seems careless and inadvisable ; nevertheless, it possesses 
some merit. Usually an active, vigorous ram is of nervous tempera- 
ment and if he is removed from the flock for a part of each day he 
spends the time in worrying. Sometimes he may even refuse to 
eat while away from the flock, and he reduces in condition faster 
than if he were allow^ed to remain with the ewes. With such a ram 
it would be better to allow him to remain with the ewes most of 



FEED AND EXERCISE 



233 



the time, taking him away just long enough each day to have a feed 
of grain. Should the ram be of quiet disposition and not disposed to 
fret when taken from the flock, it is advisable to keep him by him- 
self for about half the time, or with wethers or perhaps with two 
or three ewes in a lot where he will take a moderate amount of 
exercise. 

It is not always possible to have the ram in good condition in 
the breeding season. He may be old or lame, or for unknown reasons 
thin in flesh. Pie may be fit for some service, but in order to have 




Fia. 160. — A vigorous, active ram in proper condition for brecdin;^ tia- ai. 

him sire a considerable number of lambs his energies nmst l)e con- 
served. He should be allowed with the flock for only an hour or two 
each day and should have a liberal supply of choice green feed. 

Whether or not the ram is allowed to run with the flock in breed- 
ing season practically all of the time he should be given grain, the 
amount to depend on his size. If he be of medium size, he should 
eat at least one pound per day of some such mixture as three parts 
oats and one part wheat bran by weight. These feeds are excellent 
for a ram at service, as the bran acts as a mild laxative and the 



234 



THE BREEDING SEASON 



oats are invigorating. In case the ram is in thin flesh, it may be well 
to add corn and linseed oil meal to the grain part of his ration, 
making a mixture of corn, five ; oats, ten ; bran, three ; and oil meal, 
two parts by weight. 

Preparing for Mating. — As a rule the ram will copulate with 
greater ease if the wool on his belly is clipped short for several inches 

in front of the penis. Fat, 
clumsy rams should be shorn 
close all over the body, as they 
are more active and less subject 
to overheating after the fleece 
is removed. In England what 
is known as a "teaser" is em- 
ployed if the breeding ram is so 
fat and heavy on his feet that 
circulating through the flock in 
search of ewes "in heat" tires 
liim. The "teaser," a light, 
active ram with an apron tied in 
front of his penis so that he can- 
not effect copulation, is allowed 
to circulate through the flock in 
order to locate the ewes "in 
heat." By removing and placing 
them in a small pen or lot with 
the breeding ram his strength is 
conserved and he can breed many 
more ewes than would other- 
wise be possible (Fig. 161). 

By smearing a paint, non- 
injurious to the wool, between 
the fore legs of the ram each 
day, a paint mark will be left on all the ewes he serves. This is 
a material aid in keeping a record of the breeding service which 
English shepherds use extensively. At the end of every sixteen days 
they either change the color of the paint or smear it where it will 
mark the ewe in a new place. Then it is possible to discover which 
ewes recur in heat (Fig. 162). 

The number of ewes a ram will serve in a season depends on his 
age and vigor, and to a certain extent upon his breeding. Western 
sheepmen claim that a ram of any of the English mutton breeds will 
serve more ewes than a Merino of similar age and state of thrift. 




^.^'J:^-- ~/. 




i/f%i<£3s^ 



Fig. 161. — Wool sheared tnnu ()elly of 
ram prepares him better for breeding service. 



QUESTIONS 235 

The method of handling the ram also has an influence on the num- 
ber he will serve. If he is allowed with the flock a short time each 
day his energy will be conserved to such an extent that he will get 
more ewes in lamb than if he were allowed with them all the time. 




Fig. 162. — Smearing paint on ram in order to mark ewes when mating. 

The above statement may not hold for a very nervous ram. A vigor- 
ous ram from one to four years of age is sufficient for 35 to 50 ewes 
if allowed to run with them all the time; if allowed with them for a 
short time each day he is sufficient for 50 to 75 ewes. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss tlie necessity of having the ewes in a gaining condition in breed- 

ing season. 

2. How would you condition the ewes? 

3. What is the advantage of keeping the ewes on rather scant rations 

for a few days directly after they are mated? 

4. Outline a good method of keeping records on the ewe« at mating time. 

5. Discuss the condition of the ram at breeding time. 

fi. When is it advisable to turn the ram in with the ewes at breeding time 
and let liim go without any special attention? When is it not 
advisable? 

7. Would you give the ram grain during the breeding season? Why? 

8. What is a "teaser"? 

9. Is it possible to have the ram mark the ewes at the time of service? 
10. How many ewes will a ram serve in one season? 

n. Upon what factor may this depend? 



CHAPTER XXXI 
CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY 

Condition. — Ewes should uot be given a fatteniug ration during 
the period of pregnancy, but they should be put in rather high con- 
dition, for the following reasons : Eirst, they are more likely to give 
birth to strong, vigorous lambs, and to have the amount of milk 
necessary to make their offspring grow rapidly. Second, being well- 
fed, and having an adequate supply of milk, they are less likely to 
disown their lambs than are thin, improperly nourished ewes. 
Third, when the lambs are born, the ewes should have a considerable 
reserve of fat to assist in carrying them through the suckling period, 
for this is a time when the demands on them are so great that they 
usually fail to maintain their weight even though they are liberally 
fed. So important is this matter of proper condition at lambing 
time that in case a number of ewes are in very thin condition at the 
close of the breeding season they should be taken out to themselves 
and given an extra amount of feed (Fig. 150). 

Feed in Fields. — On most farms, particularly in the corn belt 
of the United States, there are pastures, oat or wheat stubble, and 
com stalks to be utilized in the fall of the year. It is the best 
policy to make use of the stubble and stalks as early as possible before 
they have deteriorated in feeding value through exposure to rains 
and frosts. Bluegrass and timothy pastures and even old clover 
fields can be left for use until late autumn and early winter in case 
the stubble and stalks furnish an abundance of food. In fact, 
pastures in the corn belt can be grazed with sheep most of the time 
during all of the winter months, but they should not be injured by 
over-pasturing and, unless they constitute a large acreage for the 
number of sheep kept, they should not be depended upon as the only 
source of feed during that time. 

If the amount of pasture is limited, some succulent autumn and 
winter feed may be obtained by sowing rye late in August or early in 
September at the rate of one bushel per acre. In the northern states, 
however, rye as a winter pasture should not be regarded as a feed 

236 



HARVESTED FEEDS 



237 



of considerable sustaining and fattening power, but it furnishes 
some .succulence, and grazing gives ewes the exercise they need. 

Harvested Feeds. — Ordinarily it is best to begin feeding preg- 
nant ewes grain or hay or both not later than January first, and 
often it is advisable to begin a month earlier than this. In fact, it is 
impossible to set a definite time for beginning to use harvested feeds, 
and the owner must be guided solely by the supply of feed in the 
fields and the condition of his flock. Unless the ewes are in thin 
flesh the amount of grain fed should not be more than five-tenths 
to seven-tenths pound per head per day to individuals weighing 




Fig. 163. — Ewes in proper condition for lambing. These ewes are in rather high condition 
with respect to flesh and fat and being so will have enough milk for their lambs. 

140 to 175 pounds. Whole oats are always considered good feed 
for sheep, but other grains and concentrated feed products can 
be used. Corn alone is not considered by many of the best shepherds 
as a good grain feed for breeding sheep because they think that it is 
too heating. The writer, however, believes corn has been too harshly 
criticised by many shepherds, for it is a good feed when used 
with discretion. If it is mixed with oats or with several concentrates 
palatable to sheep, it can form a useful part of the ration. Breeding 
sheep will do fairly well on a moderate amount of grain composed 
entirely of corn, provided good leguminous hay is fed. 

Economy and efficiency are what the owner must think of when 
compounding rations. Such feeds as linseed oil meal and bran are 
usually costly and hence, when placed in the ration, add to the cost 
of maintaining the-flock. If the flock can be kept in good condition 



238 CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY 

with less expensive feeds than oil meal and bran it would be better 
not to use them. In most cases, it is jjossible to keep pregnant ewes 
in desirable condition by feeding oats, corn, and some leguminous 
roughage, as clover, alfalfa hay, soy bean or cow pea hay. Indeed, 
it is often unnecessary to feed any grain when these roughages are 
available, but should it be desirable to make use of less nutritious 
roughages ratber low in protein, as oat or wheat straw (and there 
should be a desire to use these roughages), then it is advisable to 
put easily digested feeds of high protein content in the concentrate 
part of the ration. It is better, too, to make use of the poorer 
roughages before lambing time than it is after, because, owing to the 
many demands made upon them, ewes with lambs at side should have 
nutritious, easily digested feeds. 

Silage.^ — Of late years the question has been frequently asked : 
" Is corn silage a good feed for pregnant ewes ?" indeed, it is a 
good feed, jirovided certain precautions are observed in making it 
and feeding it. It should be made when the grains on the ears 
of corn are passing out of the dough stage and beginning to harden. 
In the process of making it the corn plant should be cut very fine 
and distributed evenly in the silo so that there will be a minimum 
of moldy silage. In feeding it care should be taken not to give the 
sheep any that is moldy or frozen, and in no case should it be fed 
to excess. For ewes weighing about 150 pounds one and a half to 
three j^ounds per head daily is enough, although it may be possible 
to feed more with safety. Along with the silage the ewes should 
get some palatable dry roughage, and they should also have some 
grain, for silage is essentially a roughage and should not be regarded 
as a substitute for grain. 

Because of its succulent nature the use of silage should make 
ewes more healthy and thrifty, particularly if no green feed is 
available in the fields. And in the northern states there are nearly 
always periods in winter when the fields either contain no feed or 
when for some other reason they should not be pastured. 

Silage is regarded as a cheap feed. On this account it should re- 
ceive favorable consideration as a part of the ration for pregnant 
ewes. But it is doubtul whether the owner of flocks of one hundred 
ewes or less can afl'ord to build a silo solely for his sheep, because 
with a small number it is difficult to feed the silage off fast enough 



*See Chapter XXX f'X for further discussion on silage and roots. 



ROOTS 239 

to keep it in good condition. In most instances, however, this 
trouble does not arise, for owners of farm flocks usually have other 
classes of livestock that will help in eating the silage. 

Roots. — In England, Canada, and northern United States, roots 
are an important sheep feed. ►Swedish turnips and mangels are the 
kinds most commonly used. For pregnant ewes the turnips are 
preferable, because the mangels require a long period of storage 
before they are sufliciently ripened to be liberally fed without in- 
jurious results. The chemical analysis of roots shows them to be 
comparatively low in food nutrients. Mr. John Campbell, of 
Canada, who was regarded as one of the most successful sheep 
raisers in America, said that there is something in roots good for 
sheep which chemists have not found. That was his way of em- 
phasizing their importance. In the eorii belt region of the United 
States and in other regions having about the same weather with 
respect to summer temperature, much of the growing season is too 
liot for Swedish turnips. Instead of growing firm and solid they 
1)ecome hollow and worthless. Mangels, however, can be growni suc- 
cessfully in the corn belt and in other regions of similar climate, 
Imt the yields are not as large as in regions farther north. More- 
over, they, and turnijjs as well, require a great deal of hand labor, 
which is very scarce on American farms. Hence in corn-growing 
regions silage largely takes the place of roots. But if the flock is 
small and if no other classes of livestock that consume silage are 
kept it will pay to seed an acre or two to mangels. The writer was 
tauglit l)y E. J. Stone, Stonington, Illinois, that the liest yields 
of mangels are secured in the corn belt when the seed is sown as 
early in the spring as possible. 

Silage and roots are similar in that each furnishes succulence, 
the importance of which has long been emphasized by many of the 
most successful sheepmen, and, like silage, roots must l)e fed with 
care if good results are to follow. In regions where large root crops 
are grown there is a temptation to save the hay and grain and to 
feed roots to excess, which, if yielded to, often results in abnormal 
losses of both ewes and lambs at lambin^ time. Wrightson in his 
" Sheep, Breeds, and Management " advises against feeding more 
than twelve pounds of roots per head daily to pregnant ewes, and he ■ 
advocates this quantity only for a short time before the parturition 
])eriod. That quantity would seem excessive to most sheepmen, and 
evidently Wrightson refers to shec)) of great feeding cajiacity. Most 



240 CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY 

American sheepmen would not feed more than three or four pounds 
})er head daily. 

Water. — Plenty of good drinking water is very necessary to the 
health and thrift of pregnant ewes ; in fact, some one has made the 
apt remark that good drinking water is the cheapest of all good sheep 
feeds. In coldest weather ewes receiving nothing but dry feed will 
drink from two to four quarts per head daily. They should not be 
made to depend on snow and ice water when water of proper drinking 
temperature can be had. 

Exercise. — Daily exercise is good for pregnant ewes because it 
stimulates the circulation of blood and assists in keeping the diges- 
tive organs in good condition. It does ewes the most good when they 
take it upon their own initiative, but if they are not inclined to 
exercise, which is often the case toward the close of the pregnant 
period, they will be benefited some by being driven from fifteen to 
thirty minutes each day at a moderate pace. It is not always ad- 
visable, however, to follow this practice, l)ecause some ewes liecome 
so heavy and clumsy that they ought not to go more than a few 
steps at a time. A good way to induce ewes to take exercise is to scat- 
ter their dry roughage over the ground for a considerable distance. 
This can be done without wasting feed if the ground is frozen, and 
corn stover is one of the best roughages to use in this way. Another 
good scheme is to have the hayracks distributed over a well-drained 
and well-bedded open lot. In moving from one rack to another the 
ewes get about all the exercise they need. Still another scheme is 
to have a feed lot some distance from the place where the ewes are 
kept the greater part of the time and to give them a little feed in 
this lot each day. They go to and from this lot of their own accord 
and hence get exercise in a manner which is good for them. The 
writer has found that corn stover set up in the form of a huge shock 
in a lot of this sort serves as a strong objective for the ewes and 
they feed upon it without causing excessive waste. 

All violent exercise should be avoided, particularly after their 
pregnant condition becomes apparent. Few things can be more 
disastrous to the prospective lamb crop than to have the ewes chased 
by dogs. The effects of such an experience are abortion and defec- 
tive lambs. It is a mistake to allow pregnant ewes to walk through 
deep stiff mud. In so doing there is danger of straining to such 
an extent that abortions may result. The same thing may occur 



SHELTER 



241 



if ewes are made to jump over obstacles or if they are allowed to 
crowd through narrow doors (Fig. IG-t). 

Shelter. — It is necessary to protect pregnant ewes from the cold 
rains of autumn and winter. Many people make the mistake of not 
liousing their ewes until they have become wet, when practically all 
of the damage has been done. As soon as it begins to rain thev 
should be driven to shelter and kept there until the storm is over. 
Snow, unless very wet and heavy, does little harm to ewes because 




FiQ. 164. — Ewes advanced in pregnancy should travel at a leisurely gait. 

they shake off that which collects on their backs. As a rule, they 
like to bed down in a deep, dry snow, and generally they may do 
so without injurious results. 

The barn or shed provided for ewes should be well ventilated 
but free from strong draughts that blow directly on them. The 
floor should be dry, and the surrounding lots should be well drained. 
16 



242 CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY 

During the pregnant period there should be no particular effort 
to make the shelter warm, as the chief danger with respect to tem- 
perature lies in making it too warm (Fig. 165). 

The Ram. — As to what should be done with the ram after 
breeding season depends upon his disposition and behavior toward 
the ewes. If he becomes " bossy " and butts and crowds them about 
lie sliould be removed and placed in a separate pen. In case the 
owner ])refers not to have very late born lambs in his flock it will 




Fig. 165. — A good barn for pregnant ewes — note the wide doors. 

be necessary, of course, to take the ram from the flock after the 
breeding season is considered closed unless it is certain that all of 
the ewes are with lamb. 

Rations for Pregnant Ewes. — The following tal)ulations indi- 
cate the amount of feed given to pregnant ewes in various 
experiments. 

(a) From the Illinois Station : 

Table 1. — The ewes in this experiment were two-year-old west- 
erns, weighing 100 pounds. They were on experiment for 84 days 
previous to the time they began lambing. All feeds tabulated are 
given in pounds and refer to the daily feed per ewe : 



RATIONS FOR PREGNANT EWES 243 

Ration No. 1 Ration No. 2 

Corn silage 9 Corn silage 2 

Clover hay 2.0 Clover hay 4 

Daily gain 0.1 Pasture in old clover field and in 

corn stalks. 

Daily gain QG 

Ration No. 3 

Corn silage 5 

Clover hay 7 

Pasture in corn stalks. 

Daily gain 07 

Table 2. — The ewes in this experiment were three-year-old west- 
erns, weighing 115 pounds, and they were fed for 100 days previous 
to the time they hegan lambing. 

Ration No. '/ Ration No. 5 

Shelled corn .55 Cottonseed meal 12.5 

Alfalfa hay 2.5 Alfalfa hay 2.5 

Daily gain 25 Daily gain 15 

Table 3. — The ewes in this experiment were four-year-old west- 
erns, weighing 115 pounds. They were fed for 11-1 days previous to 
the time they began lambing. 

Ration No. 6 Ration No. 7 

Shelled corn 25 Shelled corn 30 

Alfalfa hay 2.50 Alfalfa hay 1.50 

Daily gain 17 Oat straw 1.25 

Daily gain 08 

Ration No. S 

Shelled corn Oti IJluegrass pasture and corn stalks. 

Alfalfa hay 80 Very little grain and roughage fed 

Oat straw 25 in the barn until the last 40 days. 

Daily gain 07 

(b) From the xVnnual Report of tlic Wisconsin Station for 1902 : 
Table -i. — The average weight of the ewes was 145 and 147 
pounds. 

Ration No. 9 Ration No. 10 

Shelled corn 5 Whole oats 5 

Corn silage 2.5 ('orn silage 2.5 

Mixed hay 2.0 Mixed hay 2.0 

Daily gain 2.3 Daily gain 23 



244 



CARE OF EWES DURING PREGNANCY 



Ration No. 11 

Wheat bian 5 

Corn silage . . . : 2.5 

Mixed hay 2.0 



Ration No. 12 

Dried brewers' grains 5 

Corn silage 2.5 

Mixed hay 2.0 



Daily gain 20 Daily gain 24 



(c) From the Indiana Station, Bulletin 14"^ 
natives, weighing about 160 pounds: - 
Table 5. — Feeding period, 90 days. 



The ewes were 



Ration No. 13 

Oats 35 

Corn silage 1.70 

Mixed hay 2.96 

Daily gain 16 



Ration No. IJf 

Oats 35 

Corn stover 90 

Mixed hay 3.10 

Daily gain 12 



Table 6. — Feeding period, 130 days. 



Ration No. lo 
oats — 2 parts ^ 

Gram .^ corn— 1 part >- 1-35 

bran — 1 part ) 

Clover hay 3.17 

Corn silage 3.95 

Daily gain 18 



Ration No. 16 
( oats — 2 parts ^ 

Grain J bran— 1 part )- 1-57 

( corn — 1 part ) 

Clover hay 4.78 

Daily gain 14 



Table 7. — Feeding period, 130 days. 



Ration No. 17 
oats — 2 parts ^ 

Grain ^ bran— 1 part >- 1-05 

corn — 1 part ) 

Clover hay 2.53 

Corn silage 4.59 

Daily gain 17 



Ration No. 18 
oats — 2 parts ) 

Grain 4 bran— 1 part > 1-04 

corn — 1 part ) 

Clover hay 4.00 

Daily gain 14 



* Writer's estimate. 



QUESTIONS 245 

QUESTIONS 

1. What pasture crops can be utilized to good advantage by pregnant 

ewes in the fall? 

2. Of what value is rye as a late fall and winter pasture crop for pregnant 

ewes ? 

3. Is it advisable to feed the ewes grain during the period of pregnancy? 

4. How should the owner be guided with regard to feeding harvested feeds 

to pregnant ewes? 

5. What is the average grain requirement for a pregnant ewe for one day? 

6. Discuss the value of corn as a feed for pregnant ewes. 

7. What precautions sliould be taken in making and feeding silage? 

8. Why are roots important as a siieep feed? 

!). Outline a method whereby the ewes will receive plenty of exercise dur- 
ing the period of pregnancy. 

10. When is shelter necessary for shco])? 

11. Inder what circumstances should tlic rain be lenioved from the Mock 

as soon as the brcedin" season is over? 



CHAPTER XXXII 
THE LAMBING PERIOD 

Preparation for Lambing. — Quarters. — Lambing is usually 
conducted under shelter and more space is needed for the flock at 
this period than at any other time of the year. It should be broken 
up into smaller divisions and ewes should be taken from the flock 
and penned with their offspring. Under such circumstances every 
nook and corner of the barn is occupied. 

]f lambs are bom in cold weather warm quarters are a necessity. 
The young lamb is most in need of a warm place immediately after 
it is born, because it is wet and, not having had a fill of its mother's 
milk, is more susceptible to the cold than at any other time. When 
the weather is cold, the ewes almost due to lamb should be placed 
in the warmest part of the barn and watched very closely. If it is 
very cold it is well to place a comparatively large number together 
so that the heat from their bodies will furnish enough warmth for 
new-born lambs. 

The barn, as a whole, may be too open for lambing in cold 
weather. But it should be possible to make a section into a warm 
room by partitioning off that part which is most protected from 
the cold winds, and Ijy closing up the cracks and crevices that admit 
the cold. Such a room will l)e warm enough unless the weather 
should be extremely cold, in which case boards can be nailed about 
four inches from the walls of the room and straw stuffed in between 
them and the walls. In the attempt to make the room warm pro- 
vision for ventilation should not be overlooked (Fig. 166). 

Lambing Pens.^ — ^The lambing pen is a necessary part of the 
equipment for early lambing. Before or soon after a ewe has lambed 
she should be placed in a pen about four feet square and having no 
openings large enough to allow the lamb to escape. In this small 
pen the ewe and her lamb become acquainted and accustomed to 
each other much more quickly than they do when they are with the 
flock, for upon first getting to its feet the lamb is without its " bear- 

'For construction of lambing pens see chapter on "Buildings and 
Equipment." 
246 



SUPPLIES 



247 



ings " and is inclined to wander wherever its legs will take it. It is 
such an awkward little thing that the ewe has difficulty in getting it 
to nurse and in protecting it. It is likely to be bunted over or 
trampled by other ewes, or it may creep under a trough or through 
an opening and become chilled. Should the ewe have two lambs 
they may wander apart so that she cannot give adequate attention to 
either. Under these ciremustances she tends to abandon one and 
give her undivided attention to the other, the result being that the 
shepherd has a disclaimed lamb to deal with. Thus it is apparent 
that the small enclosure, known as the lambing pen, is elt'ective 
because it keeps mother and ofl^spring together. It is effective also 




Fig. 166. — An open-shed type of shelter with lambing apartment for cold weather. (From 
Kentucky Agricultural College.) 

liecause it directs the attention of the shepherd to the ewe and her 
lamb, should anything be wrong with them, more quickly than if 
they were with the wbole flock or a portion of it. And if they need 
his special attention he can care for them more easily when they 
are in the lambing pen (Fig. 167). 

How long the ewe and her lamb should be left in the lambing pen 
depends on the readiness with which they become accustomed to each 
other and on the strength of the lamb. x\s a rule they can be placed 
with the other ewes and lambs when the lamb is three or four 
days old. 

Supplies. — There are a few drugs and appliances which should 
be secured before the lambing season starts. The more important 
drugs are carbolic acid or liquid sheep dip, to be used as a deodorant 
and disinfectant; epsom salts, castor oil, and raw linseed oil, to be 



248 THE LAMBING PERIOD 

used as physic; olive oil (sweet oil), to form the body of useful 
lotions ; fluid extract of belladonna for dilation of parts ; sweet spirits 
of nitre for urinary troubles ; tincture of iron, gentian and ginger, 
to be used as a tonic ; soap to be used in making an enema for animals 
suffering from constipation ; vaseline to use on the hand if it is neces- 
sary to give the ewe assistance in lambing; a mixture of lead acetate, 
zinc sulfate and boric acid to be used on inflamed udders; and tinc- 
ture of iodine, to be used on umbilical cords and swollen udders. 




Fig. 167. — A lambing pen showing an arrangement for converting it into a lamb creep. 
When used as lambing pen, the larger opening is closed with the wide board. 

The following appliances (Figs. 168, 169) are important: Eub- 
ber nipples, a glass graduate sufficiently small that a nipple can be 
slipped over it, small necked bottles, a small and a large syringe, a 
funnel, three or four feet of half-inch rubber tubing, a sheep pelt 
with a good lot of wool on it, a large Jug, and facilities for heating 
water. The small graduate is useful in case the lamb will not nurse 
from the teat or if the ewe has very little milk. By milking into the 
graduate and adjusting the nipple the lamb can be given a little 
milk without delay. This cannot be done so easily with a bottle, but 
in case a rather large amount of milk is to be fed the l)ottle is prefer- 
able. The large syringe is needed in case the ewe should need injec- 
tions or " flushing out," as are also the funnel and rubber tubing. 



SUPPLIES 

Fio. 168. 



249 




Fig. 169. 

Fig. 168. — Appliances for lambing. 1, syringe with long small nozzle — suitable for 
treating lambs or grown sheep with injections; 2, swan-bill nipple; 3, rubber piping; 4, small 
glass graduate over which a nipple may be placed; 5, a type of docking iron; 6, drenching 
or nursing bottle; 7, syringe with large nozzle — suitable for drenching or giving injections 
to grown sheep. 

Fig. 169. — Appliances useful around the sheep barn at nearly all times in the year. 
1, sheep shears; 2, knife for trimming feet; 3, punch for making holes in ears, or for notching 
ears; 4, pruning shears — suitable for trimming feet; 5, drenching horn — type used in Austra- 
lia; 6, drenching or nursing bottle; 7, wooden stencil for painting letters or figures on body 
of sheep. 



250 



THE LAMBING PERIOD 




The small syringe is useful should the lamb be constipated and need 
injections of soapy water. Warm water, the sheep pelt, and the jug 
are brought into service in reviving a chilled lamb. 

The Shepherd. — No matter how good the equipment may be, 
the preparation for lambing is poor if the flock is without a good 
caretaker. He needs to be a man who knows how to take ewes through 
the lambing period and he must be willing to stay on the job both 

day and night. It is no time to 
leave home when the lambs are 
coming. For this reason alone it 
is advisable to have the lambs 
come early if the shepherd must 
help in the fields when the crop- 
ping season begins. 

The right kind of a shepherd 
has the confidence of his flock ; he 
knows when lambing is to begin; 
he sees to it that there are no 
openings in the barn walls close to 
the ground that are large enough 
to let a young lamb creep through ; 
and he keeps his flock where pigs 
can not get to it, for he knows what a dainty morsel a young 
lamb is for a pig (Fig. 170). 

Caring for the Ewe. — Before Parturition. — During the last 
days of pregnancy the ewe should be where she can be quiet and 
contented. She should have plenty of room so that all jamming and 
crowding can be avoided. Her ration should consist mainly of 
clean, palatable roughage, such as clover hay. A little grain and 
succulent feed will do her no harm, but it is dangerous to be gen- 
erous as to quantity of grain, as some who have neglected their ewes 
are inclined to do, because milk fever may develop after parturition. 
When the ewe is very woolly about the udder she should be sheared in 
order to allow the lamb to get to the teats. A new-born lamb will 
suck a lock of wool almost' as readily as it will the teat, and thus 
lead the shepherd to believe it is getting its feed. But an experienced 
shepherd cannot be fooled in this way, and it may not be necessary 
to shear the udder until after the lamb has come. It is not advisable 
to shear off a large amount of wool because the udder may be injured 
from exposure to cold. 



Fig. 170. — The good shepherd has 
the confidence of his flock. 



CARE DURING PARTURITION 251 

Care During Parturition. — It is easy to tell when the time I'or 
giving- birth to the laiiib has arrived. The ewe heeomes uneasy and 
paces about or turns around a great deal. She is very likely to paw 
at the bedding with her fore feet and if she is possessed of a great 
deal of mother instinct, she looks about and bleats for her lamb. In 
advance of any of these indications, however, the physical appear- 
ance of the ewe often shows that the time of parturition is very 
near, for she is usually abnormally sunken in front of the hips and 
on the rump at either side of the spine. 

When the ewe is of the right conformation, vigorous, and in 
good condition as a result of proper care, she seldom has difficulty 
in laml)ing unless the lamb is not in proper position for birth. Dur- 
ing the first stages of labor she should not be disturbed, but she 
should be helped if she labors hard and shows little progress after the 
normal lapse of time. Or if she quits laboring for a longer period 
than the normal intermission between the recurrence of labor pains 
an examination should be made to see whether the lamb is alive 
and in normal position. If it is in normal position the fore feet are 
coming first and the nose is placed down snug on the fore legs. 
Occasionally the head is back over the shoulders, or one leg is back, or 
the body is doubled up with the back coming first. If possible the 
shepherd should insert his hand, push the lamb back and get it 
into normal position. Before this is done the shepherd should 
take proper precautions to guard against the infection of either the 
ewe or himself by trimming his nails close and bathing his hand and 
arm in disinfectant. He should also grease them with vaseline to 
make the entrance easier. It is usually easier to introduce the hand 
if the head of the ewe is lower than her rump. In case the pressure of 
her labor is too great to permit the introduction of the hand it is 
advisable to elevate her rear parts high enough to cause the lamb to 
fall back into the womb. If this takes place it will then be compara- 
tively easy to introduce the hand. After the lamb is placed in 
normal position birth will probably be efi'ected witliout further difii- 
culty. If it is found that the breech is coming first it may not be 
necessary to put the lamb in normal position, as it is often possible 
to safely deliver it when it is in this position by getting hold of the 
hind legs and pulling steadily outward and downward toward the 
udder (Fig. 171). 

Frequently ewes have trouble in lambing because the lamb is too 
large to pass through the parts. If the attendant can get the fore 



252 



THE LAMBING PERIOD 



legs and head delivered it is usually comparatively easy to complete 
the birth, although there are cases where the shoulders are so large 
that it is hard to get them through. One of the best ways to assist 
in the delivery of the head is to pull steadily on the fore legs and 
press in on the vulva just back of the lamb's head. Professor 
Kleinheinz,- of the University of Wisconsin, says that he has found 
it to be of assistance to smear raw linseed oil in the outer part of 
the vagina just above the lamb's head. This makes the interior 
of the vagina more slippery and serves to dilate it further. After 




Fig. 171. — Proper position of Iamb in the uterus of the ewe for normal birth. 

the head and feet are delivered, the shepherd should pull on the 
fore legs outward and down toward the ewe's udder in order to 
deliver the shoulders. After the shoulders come through, the birth 
of the lamb is practically completed. 

There are instruments for dismembering the foetus in case either 
the ewe or the lamb is so abnormally developed that delivery cannot 
be effected in any other manner. This is a last resort and since 
the life of the ewe is the whole consideration great care should be 
taken to avoid such injury to the womb as will cause her death. Just 
before starting to operate the instruments should be sterilized and 

^ See "Sbeep Management and Breeds of Sheep," by Kleinheinz. 



WATER 253 

the hands of the operator thoroughly disinfected with a two per cent 
solution of carbolic acid or some other good disinfectant. 

Every shepherd should realize the importance of skill in de- 
livering the lamb. In pure-bred flocks, particularly where it is 
nearly always advisable to retain good breeding ewes long after 
they have begun to decline in vigor, the ability to know when things 
are not going right in lambiiig and the further ability to make them 
right are invaluable. Some are blessed more than others with the 
natural ability of knowing what to do and how to do it, but it requires 
much practice on the part of any one to develop the skill necessary 
to deal successfully with the various emergencies that arise. Dia- 
grams and written descriptions will give some assistance, of course, 
but the skill is developed by actually handling cases. 

After Parturition. — For several days after the lamb is born the 
shepherd should keep the ewe under close observation. He should 
see to it that she casts the placenta (after birth) ; that her bowels 
and udder are in good condition ; that she is not exposed to cold 
draughts, and that she is properly provided with drink and sound, 
easily digested feed. 

Feed. — When the ewe is in good condition it is well to feed grain 
sparingly or not at all for the first three or four days after the lamb 
is born, but if she is in thin condition and has very little milk it 
may be advisable to begin giving her grain when the lamb is only 
a few hours old. Sometimes the ewe has no appetite, in which case 
she should be offered the most palatable and most easily digested 
feeds such as bran, linseed oil meal, and the very best clover or 
alfalfa hay. Loss of appetite for a few hours may not be a serious 
matter, but if the ewe continues to have no desire for feed the shep- 
herd should note whether or not her bowels are in good condition. 
A good physic with -i ounces of raw linseed oil or 4 ounces of epsom 
salts ^ often brings a ewe to her feed in a short time, and a teaspoon 
each of tincture of gentian and ginger in a half pint of tepid 
water given three times daily will stimulate her appetite. If she is 
thin in flesh a teaspoon of tincture of iron added to each dose 
may assist in building her up so that she can take care of her lamb. 

Water. — Since she is usually in a feverish condition the ewe is 
very thirsty just after parturition and, although she should be 

®A quick acting physic is made by mixing 2 ounces of raw linseed or 
castor oil with 4 ounces of Epsom salts. An injection of soapy water is 
good in case the ewe is constipated. 



254 THE LAMBING PERIOD 

allowed to drink, she should not be permitted to take a large " fill " 
of water. She should not be given very cold water, and if the 
shepherd has the time one of the best ways to treat her with respect 
to drink is to give her about a quart of almost tepid water at intervals 
of about two hours until her thirst is satisfied. 

Caring for the Ewe That Has Had Difficulty in Lambing. — 
The ewe that has considerable difficulty in lambing is likely to be- 
come very weak and in need of a stimulant. Two tablespoonfuls 
of whiskey or gin in a little water are the stimulants most often 
given by professional shepherds. If the ewe fails to regain her 
strength the dose should be repeated after about an hour. 

A ewe that has assistance in lambing is likely to be more or less 
lacerated inwardly, and hence in need of something soothing and 
healing for the torn places. A good remedy is a wash composed of 
one-half ounce zinc sulfate and two ounces of tincture of opium 
in a quart of water. If the ewe is lacerated or if she fails to cast the 
afterbirth soon after the lamb is born she should be " flushed " once 
or twice daily with the zinc sulfate and opium wash or with a care- 
fully prepared one per cent solution of carbolic acid or other suitable 
disinfectant. A disinfectant rather than the zinc sulfate-opium wash 
is advisable if there is an offensive odor. The flushing, which 
can be done either with a large syringe or with rubber tubing, 
should be continued until all odors and unnatural discharges have 
ceased. In case the tubing is used the part inserted should be 
coated with vaseline. The other end, in which a small funnel is in- 
serted, should be held well up above the ewe while the solution is 
being poured into the funnel. Injected washes should be lukewarm. 

Occasionally a ewe suffers from eversion of womb after lambing. 
As a rule this is caused by great difficulty in lambing. For treat- 
ment " Shepherd Boy " in " Modern Sheep : Breeds and Manage- 
ment " gives the following directions : 

" The operator should have an assistant who lays the ewe on her 
back and, grasping her hind legs gently, lifts her hind quarters about 
a foot from the ground. By this metliod the organs can be readily 
replaced. The operator should next take a pint of lukewarm water 
and put into it two teaspoonfuls of sugar and one of pulverized alum 
and inject the same into the womb twice a day. In stubborn cases 
a leather band may be placed so as to prevent the womb from coming 
out." Two stitches across the vulva are effective. 



UDDER TROUBLES 



255 



Udder Troubles. — After the lamb is born, if the shepherd does 
not give close attention to the ewe's udder serious disorders may 
gain considerable headway before they are discovered. The udder 
may become very much inflamed and so sore that the ewe refuses 
to allow the lamb to suck. This condition, known as garget, may 
be brought on by bruises, colds, chills, lying on wet ground, and 
inability of the lamb to take enough of the milk. 

As soon as the trouble is discovered the udder should be thor- 
oughly milked out, and if the swollen part is feverish it should be 
reduced by the applica- 
tion of hot compacts 
wet wuth a solution of a 
tablespoonful of equal 
parts of lead acetate, 
zinc sulfate and boric 
acid in a quart of water. 
Keep the compacts in 
place all the time by 
placing over the udder 
an apron which can be 
held in position by at- 
taching it to a harness 
fitted to tlie body of the 
ewe (Fig. 173). 

In case the swollen part is not feverish it can be reduced l)y 
rubbing twdce a day with tincture of iodine until the swelling 
begins to subside. Thereafter one application daily is sufficient 
until the treatment can be discontinued. This treatment is also 
good for feverish, swollen udders. Since tincture of iodine is ratlier 
expensive, it woi'ld not be recommended were it not powerful in re- 
ducing inflammation. Should pus form, an opening should be 
made in the udder to permit drainage and the diseased part should 
be thoroughly disinfected once a day with a one per cent carbolic acid 
solution or some other effective antiseptic wash. If mortification 
sets in tlie discolored portion should ])e kept painted with iodine. 

Whether or not garget is contagious seems to depend on wliether 
it results from bruises and colds or from erysipelas. If due to the 
latter, the disease may spread very rapidly. Since it is difficult to 
distinguish one form of garijet from the other it is best to isolate 
all ewes whose udders are affected. It is also well to wash the udders 




Fig. 172.- 



An apron over the udder to keep compact 
in place. 



256 THE LAMBING PERIOD 

of the other ewes in the flock with disinfectant and to disinfect the 
pens from which the diseased ewes are removed. Close watch should 
he kept for fresh outbreaks of the disease. 

From instances noted in the lambing fold and from experience 
with other classes of animals it would seem best to prevent the lamb 
from sucking the diseased side of the udder, because in the majority 
of cases the lamb becomes so poisoned from the milk that it either 
dies or makes very little growth. 

A very common trouble with the suckling ewe is sore teats. 
This condition may arise from either of two causes. One is the 
chewing or biting of the teats by the lamb and the other results 
from pock-like sores that appear on the teats and on the udder. 
Should the soreness arise from the lamb biting the teats it is well to 
examine its teeth. If they are long and sharp the cure may be 
effected by filing them off. This is not always successful, however, 
and it may be better to dispose of the lamb than to allow it to ruin 
the udder of a good ewe. If the trouble arises from pock-like sores, 
the best proceeding is to open these sores and wash them with a 
disinfectant. A solution of liquid sheep dip made up of one part dip 
to about twenty-five parts water is very good for this purpose and a 
few applications usually effect a cure. The shepherd should watch 
every day for sore teats, for it is a trouble which appears suddenly 
and causes a great deal of loss and annoyance. If the sores become 
large the udder is almost sure to be injured and not infrequently it is 
spoiled, thus making the ewe practically worthless for breeding 
purposes. 

Occasionally a ewe fails to give milk through what seems to be 
a sound teat. Upon close examination it is found that there is a 
hard core in it. Some authorities state that the insertion of a small, 
hot rod, such as a knitting needle, will open the teat so that the milk 
can be drawn. The writer has never tried this remedy, but he knows 
of persons who have tried it without success. A teat that has had 
the end cut off rarely functions satisfactorily. 

Caring for the Young Lamb. — As soon as the lamb is born the 
mucus should be wiped from its nose and mouth. It is not impera- 
tive that the shepherd perform this duty, for it is well known that 
many a lamb not receiving this attention comes through safely, but 
occasionally the amount of mucus in the mouth and nostrils is suf- 
ficient to cause strangulation. If the ewe is strong and possessed 
of mother instinct she gets to her feet and devotes her attention to 



HELPING THE LAMB TO NURSE 



257 



the lamb shortly after it is born. If she is too exhausted to arise 
the shepherd should place the lamb near her nose. In fact, it is a 
good practice to pinch off the umbilical cord about four inches from 
the body and place the lamb at the ewe's nose before she has time 
to arise, for then she can both rest and give the lamb the attention 
which is prompted by her mother instinct. As soon as it is apparent 
that she intends to care for her lamb it is best to go away and leave 
them for from twenty to thirty minutes. During this interval the 



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Fig. 173. — The kind that needs no help. His logs are sturdy and strong, his chest is deep 
and wide and his head carried higii bespeaks health and vigor. 

ewe removes much of the mucus from the lamb's body, and by so 
doing she hastens drying and arouses the lamb's instinct for feed 
(Fig. 173). 

Helping the Lamb to Nurse. — If the lamb is able to nurse 

without the assistance of the shepherd, well and good, but often 

assistance is necessary. Sometimes the ewe, especially with her 

first lamb, refuses to let it nurse because she is nervous and desires 

17 



258 THE LAMBING PERIOD 

to see it. When this is the case the shei^herd is ohliged to hold the 
ewe while the lamh takes its first feed, but if it is strung and an 
eager feeder the one holding is usually all that is necessary. 

Often a strong lamb, eager to feed, but unable to find the teat, 
can be trained by being helped once or twice. When assisting such 
a lamb it is best to let the ewe stand rather than to lay her on her 
side. By backing her into a corner and placing a knee against her 
brisket to hold her the shepherd has both hands free to guide the 
lamb to the teat, which should be done by gently pushing the lamb 
at the tail with one hand and holding obstructions away from the 
teat with the other. 

Helping a Weak Lamb. — A strong lamb is up on its feet, 
bleating and searching for food a few minutes after it is born. A 
weak lamb (and there are almost sure to be a few) is very slow in 
getting to its feet ; its bleat is feeble and it does not have much 
desire for food. Often the teat has to be placed in its mouth and 
some milk squeezed into its throat before its appetite is aroused. 
Since it cannot stand while it nurses, the shepherd, if he is without 
a helper, usually has to lay the ewe on her side in order to get the 
lamb to the teat. But if it can be avoided it is better not to put 
the ewe on her side, because the lamb will learn to help itself much 
more quickly if she is left in normal position. 

A good fill of mother's milk generally works wonders for a weak 
lamb. After it has had its feed it should be placed where it will 
keep warm and can have an undisturbed sleep. In about two hoi;rs 
after the feed is taken it is usually markedly improved in strength. 
By the time three or four feeds have been taken the weak lamb, 
possessing an appetite, is about able to get to the teat unassisted. 

The weak lamb, unwilling to feed, presents a more serious 
problem. Usually such a lamb cannot he induced to suck, and 
enforced feeding must be resorted to. If the shepherd squeezes 
some of the ewe's milk into a small glass graduate, slips a swan 
bill nipple over the end, places the nipple in the lamb's mouth and 
pours the milk down its throat, the lamb will gain some strength and 
perhaps will develop such a desire for food that subsequent feeding 
will be easier. 

Occasionally lambs are so weak as to appear almost lifeless at 
birth. A careful shepherd can often save such lambs by quick action. 
Eespiration can best be started by blowing into the lamb's mouth and 
by gently Ideating it on the chest. After the breathing becomes 



YOUNG LAMB TROUBLES 259 

normal the procedure is the same as outlined ahove for weak lanihs. 

When a lamb is born with a thickened tongue it is impossible 
to handle it successfully. Although strong, it is drowsy and utterly 
unable to nurse. It is best to give up a lamb of this sort at once. 

Handling the Chilled Lamb. — If the lambing occurs when the 
weather is cold there will probably be some chilled lambs. There is 
hope for the chilled lamb as long as life is not extinct. One of the 
best ways to proceed with it if it is badly chilled is to immerse all 
but its head in water as warm as the elbow can bear. As the water 
becomes cool hot water should be added to maintain the proper tem- 
perature. The purpose of the bath is to start and to invigorate the 
circulation, hence when the lamb becomes somewhat lively it should 
be removed. Immediately upon being taken from the water the 
lamb should be enveloped by a large towel and rubbed briskly until 
dry. It should then be fed and placed in a warm spot for its sleep. 

If the lamb is not so badly chilled as to require the bath it may 
be revived by wrapping it well and giving it a stimulant, such as 
a teaspoonful of gin or whiskey in a little warm milk. If it is 
placed near a heated stove it should be well wrapped in a cloth or 
a sheep pelt, because the air currents about the stove and direct 
contact with the heat seem to have a detrimental effect. 

Joe Wing advocated placing a chilled lamb in a barrel half 
filled with bran and containing a good sized jug of warm water; 
and Herbert Eadwell, shepherd for K. J. Stone, Stonington, Illinois, 
keeps a barrel half filled with straw near the furnace in the base- 
ment of the hoiise. If a ewe lambs on a cold night he takes her 
lamb away from her before she has seen it and keeps it in this 
barrel until morning. He says he avoids a great many cases of chill- 
ing in this way and the ewe never refuses to own her lamb when it 
is returned to her. 

One important thing to remember about the chilled lamb is that 
it should be fed as soon as it has l)ecome revived. Another im- 
portant thing is that it should be kept away from its mother no 
longer than is absolutely necessary, for there is danger (Radwell's 
case excepted) of her refusing to own it if it has been away from 
her very long (Fig. 174). 

Young Lamb Troubles. — The Disowned Lamb. — It is very 
annoying to have a ewe disown her lamb, because it not only brings 
about trouble, but her desertion of it appeals to one as being unjust. 
We do not know what makes a ewe refuse to claim her lamb. Many 



260 



THE LAMBING PERIOD 



cases have come to notice in which a ewe has taken one of a pair of 
twins and has refused the other, an action which is scarcely trace- 
able to lack of mother instinct. Again, a ewe may be very good to 
her lamb for the first two or three days of its life and then turn 
against it. It is not an uncommon occurrence for young ewes to 
fail to claim their lambs, this being particularly noticeable in ewes 
that are only a year old when the lambs are born. Such ewes 
are not sufficiently mature to have the maternal instinct well 
developed. 

The first duty of the shepherd toward the disowned lamb is to 
try to make the mother claim it. As soon as the lamb is bom it is a 




Fio. 174. — A lamb blanket used in the West to avoid chilling, 
can withstand rough weather. 



A young lamb thus blanketed 



good jiractice to take some of the mucus from its mouth and nose 
and smear it over the nose of the ewe as a case of disowning may be 
avoided in this way. For the first few Jays the ewe seems to recog- 
nize her lamb solely by means of the sense of smell, and smearing 
her nose with the mucus from the lamb seems to aid her in recog- 
nizing it. If she refuses to own her lamb after it is dry she may 
be induced to take it after some of her milk has been rubbed on the 
lamb's rump and also on her nose. She turns her head to smell of 
the lamb when it is placed to the teat, and the odor of the milk 
being both on her nose and on the lamb frequently serves to estab- 
lish recognition of her offspring. In case the ewe seems undecided 
whether or not to claim her lamb, another means for forcing her 
to take it is to tie a strange dog in a pen next to the one in which 



YOUNG LAMB TROUBLES 261 

she and her lamb are confined. The fear of the natural enemy 
makes her seek the companionship of her offspring and arouses lier 
latent mother instinct. Use this as a last resort. 

.Sometimes it is possible to induce a ewe to take her lamb by 
keeping her and the lamb in the lambing pen and by holding her 
frequently to allow the lamb to nurse. This plan will work if the 
ewe's antipathy for her lamb is not marked. After the lamb becomes 
pretty strong and has learned well the source of its feed it will 
persistently tease at the mother for the privilege of nursing, whicii 
helps to break down lier stubbornness and hastens the time when she 
will claim her lamb. 

Sometimes the ewe exhibits great dislike for her lamb, and she 
does all she can to prevent it from nursing. She bunts it over when- 
ever she has opportunity; she may even savagely trample it under 
foot. An extended struggle is usually necessary for inducing such a 
ewe to own her lamb. She should be tied up short so that she has 
small chance to harm the lamb. As often as the shepherd can get 
around to her he should force her to allow the lamb to nurse, since 
in so doing he may make progress in breaking down her stubborn- 
ness. It may be necessary to build a device which will not allow her 
to move the rear of her body from side to side. As a last resort she 
may lie doAvn to keep her lamb from nursing, in which case some- 
thing should be placed under her to hold her up. After every 
scheme has been tried, from the mildest to the most severe, the ewe 
may still remain unconquered. But if her lamb is strong and 
plucky it may manage to get along if the she])herd can find time 
to hold the ewe for it to nurse several times each day. 

When it happens that a ewe refuses to own one of a pair of 
twins the shepherd finds himself in an exasperating situation, 
especially during the first few days after the lambs are born, be- 
cause the more the ewe dislikes one lamb the more she seems to like 
the other. She attempts to give the favored lamb a great deal of 
nursing, thus exhausting her supply of milk, so that there is noth- 
ing for the disowned lamb when the shepherd comes around to give 
it assistance. But if the unclaimed Iamb can be carried through 
until it has learned to go after food when its mate does the ewe 
^\^ll soon be obliged to allow it to feed. The unclaimed lamb can 
be given an equal chance with its mate by keeping both lambs in a 
pen close to the mother where she can see them. Then when the 



262 THE LAMBING PERIOD 

shepherd eonics around lie can put both hinibs with her and see to 
it that the chances of each for food are equal. 

The Orphan Lamb. — A lamb may be orphaned through the 
death of its mother or because of her inability to suckle it. In 
caring for it the shepherd's first thought is to find a foster mother 
and it may be that some ewe has lost her lamb about the time the 
orphan was born. If so, the dead lamb should be skinned and its 
pelt kept on the orphan for a few days. The scent from the pelt 
will cause the ewe to think the orphan is her own lamb. Should it 
happen that the ewe lost her own lamb some time before a certain 
lamb became an orphan she may be induced to become its foster 




Fig. 175. — Wearing a dead lamb's skin to induce the mother of the dead lamb to believe 
that, her offspring is still living. 

mother by some of the methods already outlined for making the 
ewe claim her lamb. Another plan is to rub sassafras oil or kerosene 
on the lamb and also on the ewe's face and nose. Every shepherd 
should endeavor to keep a lamb with each ewe that is able to raise 
one. fShould there be no orphans at the time a ewe loses her lamb 
it is advisable to place with her one of a pair of twins belonging 
to some ewe that is unable to suckle two lambs well (Fig. 175). 

If there is no chance to place the orphan witW a foster mother 
it will have to be fed by hand on cow's milk. Several authorities 
state that to prepare cow's milk for lambs it should be diluted 
WMth an equal amount of water, but since the analysis of ewe's milk 



AILMENTS AND DISEASES 263 

shows it to be richer in fat, sugur and total solids than cow's milk 
this practice is entirely nnnocossary.* 

Casein and 

No. of Water Albumin Fat Sugar Ash 

Analyses. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Ewe's milk (Sartori) 2,700 78.70 6.30 8.94 5.06 1.02 

Cow's milk (Konig) 705 87.27 3.39 3.68 4.94 .72 

For the first week the orphan should have some ewe's milk. A 
good way to get it is to take the lamb to ewes whose lambs are not 
yet old enough to take all of the milk. The orphan should be fed 
milk often, but it should not be given a large amount at one time 
until it is two or three weeks old. On the first day of its life an 
ounce (two tablespoonfuls) is a liberal feeding, and it is safer to 
feed only half that amount. But it should be fed at least every 
two hours. It is most convenient to feed the milk from a bottle 
to which is attached a medium sized nipple of the ''' swan bill " 
type. The bottle should be kept thoroughly clean and- the milk 
should be fresh and at natural temperajture ; that is, at approxi- 
mately 100 degrees Fahrenheit. In order to maintain this tenir 
perature the bottle containing the milk should be kept in a vessel 
partly filled with water heated to 100 degrees Fahrenheit or slightly 
above. After the lamb is two or three weeks old it is not necessary 
to feed it more than three times a day (Fig. 176). 

Sometimes a ewe has two lambs and only enough milk for one. 
In such a case, it is usually possible to bring the lambs along 
nicely by supplementing her supply with cow's milk. At first they 
may be reluctant to nurse from the bottle, but by persistent en- 
couragement they soon take to the additional feed eagerly. As they 
learn to eat grain and hay the milk feeding can be gradually dimin- 
ished and finally discontinued (Fig. 177). 

Ailments and Diseases of Young Lambs. — Pinning. — What 
is known as " pinning " is the collection of feces at the anus so that 
evacuation cannot be accomplished. The first feces voided are 
almost as sticky as glue and hence often cling to the wool and skin 
of the tail. When this happens the anus is " plugged " and the 
lamb, unless attended to, may pine away and die. All the treatment 
that is necessary is to scrape the collection away with a stick or cob 
and wash witli warm water. 

* Composition of ewe's and cow's milk (from "Feeds and Feeding," by 
Henry and Morrison ) . 



264 



THE LAMBING PERIOD 



Constipation. — Young lambs may be constipated. The symp- 
toms are straining and distress in the attempt to pass feces. Usually 
this trouble is relieved by injections of warm, soapy water. If this 
treatment fails, a half to a tablespoonful of milk of magnesia (sul- 
fate of magnesia) or a teaspoonful of castor oil may effect a cure. 

WJiite Scours. — White scours are caused by digestive disorders 
in the stomach, which usually result from mistakes in feeding the 




Fig. 176. — Happy orphans. 

ewes. If they be given clean, wholesome feed and if the nature of 
their ration is not changed abruptly, white scours do not often occur 
in the lambs. In fact, nearly all digestive disorders in very young 
lambs may be due to the feed and physical condition of the ewes. 
Sulfate of magnesia, given as in constipation, may be of some 
help to lambs suffering from white scours. 

Indifiesiion. — Sometimes lanibs are seized with a violent attack 



AILMENTS AND DISEASES 265 

of indigestion. It is marked by great distress and frothing at the 
mouth. Castor oil (a tablespoonful) is the most efficient remedy 
the writer has found. 

Sore Eyes. — Lambs arc frequently afflicted with sore eyes. The 
eyes take on a milky appearance or, in very severe cases, an angry 
reddisli hue. Tears flow profusely. A few drops of silver nitrate 
solution, known to all druggists as an " eye wash," placed in the 
eye each day usually relieves the trouble. Argyrol, a preparation 




Fig. 177. — A milch goat is useful in lambing time. 

often used as a remedy for sore eyes in people, is also a good remedy 
for sore eyes in lambs. Wing, in " Sheep Farming in America," 
says that a strong solution of sheep dip is a sure cure for sore eyes. 
He states that the disease is due to the presence of bacteria which 
will be destroyed by a thorough bathing with the dip in and all 
around the eyes. A strong solution of dip api)lied to the eyes is very 
painful and hence the other remedies mentioned are to be preferred 
to using the dip. 



266 THE LAMBING PERIOD 

Sore eyes are often caused by the eye lashes turning inward 
against the eyeball. The remedy is to sew the eye open with a needle 
and silk thread by stitching the loose turned in part of each eyelid 
to the parts above or below. In a few days the stitch will come out, 
Imt in the meantime the eyelid will have thickened so that the lashes 
will not turn inward. 

Sore Mouths. — Scabs and pock-like sores on the lips and nose are 
also common afflictions of young lambs. Undoubtedly this trouble 
is traceable to bacteria. Before treatment the scabs should be 
rubbed off and the sores opened. A thorough application of sheep 
dip will soon effect a cure. A solution of copper sulfate of medium 
strength is also a good remedy, Init care should be taken not to 
allow the lamb to swallow any, for it is poisonous. 

Navel III. — This disease is characterized by swollen knee and 
hock joints, and it results from infection througli the umbilical 
cord. It can be avoided by disinfecting the cord with tincture of 
iodine shortly after the lamb is born. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe a lambing pen and its use. 

2. How long should a ewe and lamb be left in the lambing pen? 

3. What general supplies and drugs would you have in the medicine chest 

in the lambing season? 

4. Discuss the management of the ewe just before parturition. 

5. If it is necessary to help the ewe at the time of parturition how would 

you proceed? 

6. How should a ewe be fed the first few days after lambing? 

7. What is garget? Discuss causes and treatment. 

8. What are the general causes of sore teats? 

0. In case the new born lamb gets chilled how should it be handled ? 

10 What causes a ewe to disown her lambs? Discuss remedies. 

11. How would you handle the orphan lamb? 

12. Discuss the feeding of an orphan lamb. 

1.3 Name six common ailments of young lambs. 

14. What is pinning? 

15. Give remedies for constipation and white scours. 
IG. How should sore eyes be treated? 



OHzVPTER XXXI 11 
GROWING THE LAMB 

Importance of Growth. — In producing lambs for the market 
an elfort should be nuule to keep them growing rapidly until they 
attain the weight desired. A lamb that is strong and hearty at birth 
l)egins to gain at once ii' it is properly fed, and it pays to feed it well 
while it is very young, for at that time the cheapest growth can be 
secured because the lamb is capable of making its highest rate of 
gain for the amount of feed it consumes. If there are exceptions to 
that part of the above statement which pertains to cost of growth, 
they occur under circumstances when feed is almormally high wliile 
the land) is young, and unusually cheap when it grows older. 

Methods of Feeding. — There are two ways of feeding lambs: 
First, indirectly through the ewes; second, directly by giving them 
feed such as grain and hay as soon as they are able to take it. Both 
w^ays of feeding should be followed if the lambs are to be marketed 
liefore they are five months old. 

Feeding the Ewe.* — In order to do lier best for her bimb tbe 
ewe must have good feed in liberal quantities, because she is not only 
producing milk, but she is also growing wool and maintaining her 
own body. If possible her ration should be made up of several 
feeds rather than of one, because variety stimulates the a])|)etite 
and assists in keeping the body in good thrift. She should have a 
ration fairly rich in protein, for sheep's milk is rich in nitrogenous 
substances and fat. Some succulent feed, such as roots, silage or 
pasture, should be a part of the ration for the sake of the influence 
on the amount of milk produced and also for the toning and regu- 
lating effect these feeds have on the body. Too often American 
flock-owners are disposed to overlook the importance of succulence 
in the rations of nursing ew'es. They rely too much on grain and 
on fields whose plant growth early in the spring is of <|uestioiuil)le 
value ; but now that silage is coming into more general use we 
should be able to (•om])oun(l a better ration with respect to succulence. 

On beginning to feed after lambing, the concentrate part of the 
e\ve's ration should be light in nature and small in (juantity. 

'A <;t)()(I snckliiit;- I'we yives about 3 pounds of milk daily, 

267 



268 GROWING THE LAMB 

Although not iuclispeusable, bran is one of the very best concen- 
trates to begin with. After feeding it for a daj' or two, oats can 
be added, and in about a week corn and linseed oil meal can be 
introduced. Not all of these concentrates are absolutely necessary, 
and whether or not they are to be used should be determined by their 
cost and by the nature of the succulent feed and roughages available. 

The best roughages are leguminous hays, such as clover, alfalfa, 
cowpea, and soybean hay. The hay should be sweet and clean, for 
damaged hay is always likely to lead to digestive troubles, both 
in the ewes and in the lambs. When plenty of choice leguminous 
hay is available there is less need for nitrogenous concentrates. 
Carbonaceous roughages, such as corn stover and straw can be 
used, but when they are fed the concentrate ])art of the ration 
should be rich in protein and if possible these roughages should be 
used up while the ewes are pregnant. 

Just how much suckling ewes should be fed depends on so many 
variable factors aside from their variation in size and condition, 
that the owner must make a special study of his flock after the lambs 
are born. If the lambs are born early, say in February or March, 
and if the weather is cold, making what is called a backward si)ring, 
the demand of the ewes for feed will be heavy. If there is a large 
percentage of twins, more feed should be given than when such \s 
not the case. In England it is common practice for the ewes with 
twins to be placed in a separate flock in order to give them more 
feed than is given to the ewes with but one lamb. This is a prac- 
tice which could undoubtedly be followed with profit in many Amer- 
ican flocks. In the foregoing it is assumed that stored feeds, such 
as grain, hay, roots, and silage are referred to. If climatic con- 
ditions have been favorable for the growth of grass or forage, such 
as rye, and if there is a considerable area of these growths available, 
the demand on the stored feeds is much lessened. But too much 
reliance is often placed on field growths early in the spring before 
the growing season begins. If the pasture is good when the pastur- 
ing season opens it should not be necessary to continue longer to 
give stored feed to the ewes. 

An abrupt change in the rations of suckling ewes may cause 
digestive disturbances, the effects of which may be transmitted to 
the lambs through the milk. In spite of the fact that sheep are 
Tinequaled among domestic animals in their power of adaptation 
to grazing it is not always best completely to set them at liberty 



DRY LOT RATIONS 269 

from the dry lot into pasture, for they may get indigestion from 
gorging themselves on green feed. This is particularly true of 
suckling ewes. If they have been confined in the dry lot for several 
weeks it is best to let them pasture at first for only an hour or two 
a day. 

Variety of feed has often been confused with change of feed. 
That is, a ration composed of several feeds is advisable, but chang- 
ing every little while from one feed to another is inadvisable. If 
possible, before lambing, the ewe should be placed on the kind of 
ration she is to receive after lambing. If it is a good ration there 
is no danger of her tiring of it or of failing to thrive on it. 

Water and salt are indispensable to all classes of sheep, but their 
value for suckling ewes should be especially emphasized. When 
confined in the dry lot they drink large quantities of water, and also 
when they are in the pasture, if the weatlier is hot and the grass has 
liecome rather dry. 

In spite of liberal feeding, ewes are inclined to lose in weight 
(luring the first few weeks of the suckling period. No other fact so 
strongly emphasizes the need of having them in rather high con- 
dition when the lambs are born. If such is the case one need not 
l)e so much concerned when he observes them losing in condition 
and the criterion by which one should judge as to whether the ewes 
are being properly fed is to note whether or not they are growing 
their lambs well. 

Dry Lot Rations. — The following rations taken from various 
experiments are regarded as satisfactory for suckling ewes. All 
weights of feed are given in pounds and in terms of " per ewe " 
" per day." 

(a) From the Illinois Station : 

Tabic 8. — The ewes in this test were two- and three-year-olds 
from western ewes and l)y pure-bred Shropshire and Southdown 
rams. The ewes weighed 130 pounds and were fed in the dry lot for 
56 days. The water consumption does not make allowance for what 
was drunk liy the lambs. 

Ration Xo. W If at inn Xo. 20 

{ linseed oil meal — 1 part ~) i linseed oil meal — 1 part ") 

Grain < corn— 3 parts C i.o Grain •< oats— 6 parts C i.o 

( oats — fi jiarts ) ( corn — .'] parts j 

Alfalfa hay 4.0 Corn silage 4.0 

Water 14.0 Alfalfa hay 2.0 

\^'ater 12.0 



270 



GROWING THE LAMB 



Table 9. — The ewes in this experiment were westerns weighing 
110 pounds, that were fed in the dry lot from about March 37 to 
May 5. Shortly after being turned out to pasture they were given 
no additional feed. 



Ration No. 21 

Shelled corn 5 

Whole oats 5 

Alfalfa hay 3.0 



Ifation No. 22 

Shelled corn 5 

Whole oats 5 

Corn silage 3.0 

Alfalfa hav 1.5 



{h) From Ohio Station, Bulletin 270: 

Table dy^. — The ewes in this experiment were grade Delaine 
jMerinos weighing about 85 pounds. They were on experiment 02 
days, from December 11) to 1 i,';)ruary 19, and they made an average 
daily gain of .095 pound. 'J hey were given all the hay and silage 
they would consume. 

Ration No. 2Jf 
/shelled corn — 5 parts 
I oats — 2 parts 
^" *■'"" i wheat bran— 2 partd ' ''^''^ 

I linseed oil meal — 1 part 

Corn silage 3.30 

Alfalfa hay 1.0« 



Grain 



1 



99 



Ration No. 23 
[shelled corn — 4 parts 
I linseed oil meal — 1 part 

Corn silage 3.23 

Alfalfa hay LOG 



Table 10. — The ewes in this experiment were grade Delaine 
^Icrinos weighing a little more than 90 pounds. They were fed for 
95 days, from December 34 to March 28. Their average daily gain 
was .013 pound. 



Ration No. 25 

, _ _ rn — 4 parts 
Grain i,. , ., , 

■;eed oil meal — 

Hay (clover and alfalfa) . 

Corn silage 



( corn 
( linse 



1 pari 



.CO 

.95 
3.26 



Ration No. 26 
corn — 5 parts 
oats— ^ parts 



00 



Gram ^ wheat bran — 2 parts 

I linseed oil meal — 1 part J 

Hay (alfalfa and clover) 97 

Corn silage 3.35 



Feeding the Lamb. — Quarters. — Lambs born in cold weather 
(January, February, and March) should remain in the warm part 
of the barn until they are at least a week old. After this time they 
are able to withstand considerable cold, but they should not be 



FEEDING GRAIN 



271 



exposed in severe weather nor housed where thoy are not well pro- 
tected from cold draughts, for they will not make rapid growth 
when they are uncomfortably cold (Fig. 178). 

Aside from food, nothing seems to "' tone " lambs and invigorate 
more than a good sun bath, and in order to permit of every oppor- 
tunity to have the sunshine, their quarters should be arranged 
where there is a south exposure (Fig. 179). 

Quarters for lambs should be well bedded with straw. Whoever 




Fig. 178. — A temporary shelter; well bedded and luinfortable for lambs past two 
weeks old. Shropshire ewes and lambs on the farm of J. C. Andrews, West Point, Indiana. 

has observed lambs has learned that they seek a dry place for sleep- 
ing; in fact, they often bed down in the soft warm wool on their 
mother's back. 

Feeding Grain. — Lambs intended for market should be fed 
grain as soon as they will eat it, and they will begin to nibble some 
when from 10 to 1(5 days of age. At first there is a little advantage 
in feeding ground grain, but after the lambs are five or six weeks 
old whole grain is as good or better than the ground grain. Sheep 
and lambs with good teeth masticate their feed thoroughly. ' Ex- 
periments conducted at the Illinois Experiment Station indicate 
that western lambs six months old or past will make more gain from 
whole shelled corn than they will from ground corn. 

A good grain mixture for lambs just beginning to eat is ground 



272 



GROWING THE LAMB 



com, two parts ; crushed oats, two parts ; liuseed-oil meal, one part ; 
and wheat bran, one part. The wheat bran is very essential to this 
mixture because it contains the mineral matter the growing lambs 
need and being somewhat like a roughage it adds bulk to the ration 
and aids in developing capacity for feed. The hulls from the oats 
serve the same purpose. Lambs can be successfully raised without 
the use of bran, but if it is not to be had, leguminous roughages such 
as clover or alfalfa hay of the very best quality should be used. 
Even if bran is available some first-class leguminous hay should be 




Fig. 179. — Enjoying a sun laath. 

placed where the lambs can get it, for they will take to it as soon as 
they do to grain. 

The idea has been advanced that the different kinds of grain to 
be fed to the lambs should be plac3d in separate compartments so 
that each lamb can feed on the kinds it likes best. The writer has 
had some experience along this line with corn, oats, bran, and 
linseed oil cake (pea size). The difficulty lay in the fact that the 
lambs preferred the most expensive feed, oil meal, and they did 
not make enough more gain than lambs that were fed on a grain 
mixture to justify feeding according to the free-choice system. 

Lamb Creeps. — In order to feed the lambs grain and hay so 
that they can eat at will, prepare a feeding place for them where 
their mothers cannot follow. Such a place is called a creep. It 
should be placed in the most comfortable part of the barn where 



HOW TO FEED THE LAMBS 



273 



the laniht; would choose to i)lay and sKh']). If tliore is a soinowliat 
suiiny jjlace, that is the best spot I'or the ei'eqj. 

In construction the creep is very simple.- The only point to be 
taken into consideration is that there are to be openings througli 
which the lambs but not the ewes may pass. Inside the creep there 
should be troughs for grain and racks for hay. A flat-bottomed 
trough, nine inches wide, three or four inches deep, with a six-inch 




FiQ. 180. — A partition in a box rack making it possible to feed little lambs grain on one 
side and hay on the other. 

board supported eight inches above to keep the lambs from placing 
their feet in the trough proper, is a suitable type. Any device for 
the hay which will keep the lambs from wasting or befouling it is 
satisfactory. Combination grain and hay racks may be used, but in 
most cases it is better to feed grain and hay separately, because in 
the combination rack the hay becomes mixed with the grain and this 
seems to make the feeds less palatable (Fig. 180), 

How to Feed the Lambs. — Cleanliness should be the motto of 
any sheep feeder, ])ut s]iecial emphasis should l)e ])laeed on this 

-For details see chapter on buildings and equipment. 
18 



274 GROWING THE LAMB 

motto by the caretaker of young lambs. The troughs and racks 
should be carefully cleaned every day, and it is a good policy to scrub 
them with lime-water whenever they become noticeably soiled. The 
lime seems to make the odor about the troughs pleasant to the 
lambs. Any surplus feed taken from the troughs and racks can be 
fed to the ewes, or used for bedding. 

When beginning tc feed little lambs, only a small amount of 
grain should be placed in the bottom of the troughs. They are very 
curious creatures and are inclined to do a great deal of investigat- 
ing, so that it is not long until some lamb is nibbling at the feed. 
They are also much given to imitation and on this account often 
learn to eat through imitating either their mothers or the lamb that 
first takes to the feed. The writer has induced lambs to start eating 
grain by quietly offering it to them from his hand. Their curiosity 
caused them to sniff about the hand with the result that they took 
to the feed. Scattering a little sugar over the grain may serve to 
get the lambs started on grain. It is better to give them about the 
amount of feed they will clean up in a day than to place a large 
quantity before them to nose over and spoil. The ewes will eat the 
feed the lambs refuse unless it is mixed with dung, but it is not as 
palatable as fresh feed. 

After lambs learn to eat they increase rapidly in their power to 
consume feed. Whether or not they should be given all they want 
depends on the end in view. If they are to be marketed as fat lambs, 
they should be liberally fed with grain until they are of marketable 
weight and condition. If all of them are to be marketed, a large 
part of the grain ration should be carbonaceous in nature, like corn, 
but if a number of the ewe lambs are to be retained for breeding 
purposes, not more than half of the grain mixture should be corn, 
the other half consisting of oats and })Ossibly bran and oil meal. 

Amount of Feed Consumed by Lambs. — At first the lamb eats 
only a very little, l)ut by the time it has been nibbling at grain for 
three or four weeks it will be eating about one-fourth pound daily. 
If it is confined in the dry lot all the while and is permitted to have 
about all the grain it wants it will consume about three-fourths of a 
pound of grain daily in the seventh week after it has begun to eat. 
When it is on grass or forage it will not eat more than half ate much 
grain as a lamb of the same age confined to the dry lot. 

Green Feed Before Grass Season. — Rye, old clover, and grass 
pastured before the beginning of the grazing season are good for 



FEEDING LAMBS ON GRASS 275 

both ewes and lambs. Such feeds do not produce much growth, but 
the exercise the hmibs get and the regulating effect of what they 
consume are beneficial to them. It is doubtful whether ewes with 
lambs at side should be out in rye and clover fields throughout the 
day so early in the season, for the ground is very cold and damp. 
From two to four hours is long enough. If it is possible, however, 
they should be allowed their own choice between the time spent in 
the field and in the barn. 

Feeding Lambs on Grass. — When lambs are intended for 
market at weaning time they should be fed grain up to the time 
they are to be shipi^ed, for they not only make larger gains, but they 
ship with less shrinkage and make a better meat product than do 
lambs finished without grain. 

If they are to be taken entirely away from the barns or sheds, a 
creep should be placed somewhere in the field where they are to 
graze. One of the best locations is a place where the flock rests and 
sleeps because such a place is one of the highest and driest spots in- 
the field, and the lambs will take to the creep and feed while their 
mothers are resting. 

Lambs upon pasture should have plenty of shade, and if there is 
no natural shade in the pasture an improvised shed should be built 
near the creeps. Such a shed can be built at small expense and 
arranged so that it can be transferred from one pasture to another. 

As suggested above, lambs cat a great deal less from the creep 
after they are turned to grass or forage than they do before that 
time, and unless the creep is well located they may cease eating 
grain altogether. The grass is so tender and palatable that they are 
inclined to forget the grain, and hence it is necessary to exercise 
care in locating the creep and in keeping the grain fresh and clean. 
Occasionally it may be a good plan to cease feeding grain through 
May and the first week in June when the grass is most sweet and 
tender and then commence again and continue until the laml)s 
are sold. 

If the lambs are born late so that the flock is placed on grass by 
the time they are learning to eat, it is almost impossible to make 
use of the creep. Sweet, tender grass and the mother's milk seem 
to satisfy all demands for feed. Since late-born lambs cannot be 
marketed until autumn or winter, there is really no need to feed 
grain while they are very young. The writer has found, however, 
that it is rather difficult to get late-born lambs to eat grain in the 



276 GROWING THE LAMB 

late summer and autumn months even though the pastures are very 
short and dry. In fattening such lamhs a plan worth trying is to 
place them in the dry lot and limit the amount of roughage fed and 
thus force them to develop an appetite for grain. After this is done 
it may be possible to give them the run of the fields and still get 
them to consume enough grain to fatten them. 

Pastures and Forage Crops. — ^The standard pasture in nearly 
all parts of the United States where farm flocks* are kept is blue- 
grass. Sheep relish it and thrive and fatten on it if kept free from 
the parasites so harmful to them, but being a permanent pasture 
grass it is difficult to handle so that these parasites will not be 
present in such numbers as to greatly reduce its value. It is 
best in the spring and fall and is not an all-season pasture unless 
there is a ybt}' large area available. In midsummer it is too dry, too 
fibrous, and too unbalanced in nutrients to be an ideal feed for 
growing lambs or an economical maintenance feed for ewes. There- 
fore, it is inadvisable to depend on bluegrass alone for carrying the 
flock through the entire pasturing season. When bluegrass is young 
and tender, which is in May and the first half of June in the 
northern states, it is so palatable that laml)s abandon almost all 
other feeds for it, but later they tire of it (Fig. 181). 

Timothy is excellent pasture in the spnng, for it is very 
palatable and nutritious. When it gets above six inches in height, 
it becomes too coarse for lambs ; when it begins to head it is not a 
first-class pasture for older sheep. In midsummer it makes so little 
growth that its feeding value is very low; but should there b,e suffi- 
cient moisture, it makes an ideal fall pasture. Timothy is damaged 
if kept grazed down very closely by sheep, because the grass 
blades grow from bulbs which the sheep will eat when the pasture is 
very short. 

Mixed pastures are not very common in the United States, but 
they are prevalent in England. The writer has had limited experi- 
ence with a pasture composed of blueglass, timothy, Italian rye- 
grass, and white clover. It made splendid feed and was capable of 
carrying a large number of sheep and lambs. The Italian rye-grass 
coming on very early made this pasture ready for grazing at least 
two weeks earlier than the regular season for blueglass and timothy. 
The rye-grass, being rather coarse, was not so palatable as the other 
grasses and there was a tendency to graze the l)luegrass and timothy 
too close. By rather heavy stocking, however, it was possible to 



CLOVER AND ALFALFA 



277 



graze the rye-grass down and then by resting the pasture for two 
weeks, it was at least as good as average grass. When growing 
lambs for early summer market, the two weeks of early grazing is 
important and it may pay well to have a small pasture composed 
of some mixture such as the one mentioned here. 

Clover and alfalfa may be classed either as pasture or as forage 
crops. On account of being so watery while very young they are 
best in feeding value when above six inches in height. Except 
for a tendency to cause bloat, both are good feed for sheep and 
himbs. There is little danger of the lambs bloating, however, so 
long as they are getting milk. There are fewer fatal cases of 
bloat from clover than from alfalfa ; in fact, sheepmen are not 



^^-^Wi^'^m^ -i«P«^.p^- 



Fig. 181. — On the blue grass. 

much afraid of clover, but they are afraid of alfalfa. Clover seldom 
causes severe bloating except when it is very wet, but alfalfa in any 
condition will develop bad cases. Some of the worst cases have been 
caused by grazing in the afternoons when everything except the 
green alfalfa ])lants was dried and parched. The danger is greatest, 
iiowever, when the alfalfa is wet, and no matter what condition it is 
in, it is inadvisable to turn the sheep on it when they are very 
hungry. It is said that there will not be so much bloating if sheep 
are kept on alfalfa all the time while it is being grazed. 

Alfalfa is freakish in causing bloat. Flocks may have no losses 
from it in one season and then suffer severe losses the next. A 
prominent sheepman in the western jiart of the United States who 
uses alfalfa extensively as pasture, said, upon being asked whether 
he lost many sheep from bloat : " Oh, in some summers I hang lots 
of pelts on the barbed wire, and in others, none." 

Keeping alfalfa grazed down close will kill it. This, together 
with its tendency to cause bloat, does not permit it to be regarded as 



278 GROWING THE LAMB 

a dependable sheep pasture. In most regions, more good can be 
secured from it in the form of hay. 

How to Treat Bloated Sheep. — When sheep are grazing on 
pasture that will cause bloat, they should be watched closely, for 
dangerous cases develop very rapidly. Many methods of treatment 
have been given, but the one which is most likely to l^e successful 
is the trocar and canula. These should be inserted three ot four 
inches in front and a little Ijelow the hip bone on the left side of the 
animal. The writer uses the trocar as a last resort because of bad 
after-effects. It punctures the paunch and it is several weeks before 
the wound heals. In the meantime, a part of the contents of the 
paunch may run out into the wool and cause an offensive odor whicli 
attracts the flies that cause maggots. Kleinheinz - says that freshly 
drawn cow's milk will cure all but the very worst cases of bloat. He 
emphasizes the need of having the animal heat in the milk in order 
to have it absorb a maximum amount of gas. One-half pint should 
be given and if the bloating does not begin to go down in a few 
minutes, another dose should be given. A man once told the writer 
that he had reduced bloat in western lambs by putting a wliole ogs; 
in the mouth of the animal and forcing him to crush and swallow it. 
Probably the egg, like the milk, absorbs the gas. 

Another method of reducing bloat which has been employed with 
success is to put a round stick about three-fourths of an inch in 
diameter in the mouth just as one M'ould place a bridle bit, except 
that the stick is drawn np close to the corners of the moutli. A 
heavy string, a small rope, or a light strap can be used for a head 
stall to attach to the stick in order to hold it in place. The stick, by 
keeping the mouth open and the jaws working, assists in expelling 
the gas. 

Sometimes the gas can be expelled by pressing in on the sides of 
the sheep. This should be done, no matter what other method is 
employed, except in cases where the amount of bloating is so great 
that pressure may cause suffocation or the walls of the paunch to 
burst. 

The Kentucky Station tried a two per cent solution of formalin 
as a method of reducing bloat in cows. A quart of the solution was 
given to the cow and a stick placed in her mouth. In a short time 
after the formalin was given all signs of bloat had disappeared. It 

^ "Sheep Management and Breeds of Sheep.'' 



RAPE 279 

was assumed that the formal in stopped the rapid fermentation of 
certain sugars contained in tlie green feed which had heen eaten. 

Sweet clover is more like a forage crop than a pasture. Not 
much is known about its vahie as a green feed for sheep and lambs, 
but they will eat it and it has been used here and there with success. 
It makes luxuriant growth and undoubtedly has high carrying 
power for a short period at least. Because of its tendency to grow 
rank and coarse, one should start pasturing it rather early and a 
comparatively large number of sheep should be kept on it. From 
present indications, it would seem that a small area of it would be 
a splendid asset in dry seasons as in fertile soil it makes a good 
growth in hot, dry weather. In the corn belt and similar regions, 
an early spring seeding of sweet clover makes good feed from about 
the middle of June until late fall. 

Little lambs and, in fact, old sheep are not fond of sweet clover, 
and its use is more or less questionable. 

Rye. — In the northern states, rye is of most use in the early 
spring months. If the pasture season opens about the first of May, 
one can place the sheep on rye about March 25. When it begins to 
joint it is not palatable ; hence, to get the most out of it with ewes 
and lambs, it must be kept closely grazed. The animals must not 
l)e moved to some other green feed with a view of bringing them 
back to the rye later, for then they will not eat it. 

In central Tennessee, rye is used all winter as pasture. It is an 
important factor in producing the early fat lambs which come from 
that region. 

Winter oats furnish good forage in the winter and spring in 
many parts of the South. 

Rape is one of the best known forage crops for sheep and laml)s, 
and since it is hardy it is suitable for sowing early in the spring. 
If sown early it attains sutlficient growth to supply feed before the 
lambs are old enough for market. For this purpose it should be 
sown just as soon in the spring as it is advisable to work the ground 
into a good seed bed. Three to four pounds of seed should be sown 
to the acre and covered lightly by harrowing. Being a luxuriant 
grower, rape is adapted to a fertile soil and g, plentiful supply of 
moisture. When sown in unfertilized, poor soil it is almost sure to 
prove a disa])pointment and a financial loss. Sheep and lambs 
should not be turned on rape until it has attained a growth of six 
or eight inches because it produces so much more feed if allowed to 



280 GROWING THE LAMB 

develop a great deal of leaf surface. Some care must be exercised in 
feeding rape in 'U'der to avoid bloat, scours, and poisoning. The 
worst cases of bloat and scours occur when the sheep are allowed 
to feed on it when it is wet. Frozen rape is very likely to cause 
death if eaten by sheep that have not been feeding regularly 
on unfrozen rape for several days or weeks. In getting sheep 
accustomed to rape, it is best to turn them on it for an hour or two 
each day after the dew is gone and after the sheep have had a partial 
fill of hay or grass. 

Best results come from rape when it is alternated with something 
else, such as timothy, bluegrass, or clover. In hot weather par- 
ticularly, a field of tall rape drenched with dew is a poor run for 
sheep. They should be kept on the grass vmtil the rape is dry, 
because first getting wet and then heing exposed to the hot sun is 
hard on them. 

Eape has a great deal of fattening power; for this reason it is a 
good feed during the last few weeks before the lambs are to go 
to market. 

Eape is often sown in corn just before the corn is cultivated for 
the last time. When sheep and lambs are turned in the corn the 
rape serves as a first-rate supplement. Being hardy, it is good 
feed until well into the winter, provided the sheep have become 
accustomed to it before it becomes frosted or frozen (Fig. 182). 

Oats and Canadian peas sown together make a good green feed 
for ewes and lambs, but they are better suited for soiling purposes 
than for grazing. The peas should be sown two and one-half inches 
deep and the oats covered lightly by harrowing so that they will get 
a start before the peas come through the ground. Sow four pecks 
each of peas and oats to the acre. This mixed growth is best for 
sheep feed when the oats are about ready to head. Before that time 
the oats are so soft and watery that it takes a very large amount to 
satisfy the appetite. 

Soybeans, either broadcasted or sown in rows, make a fairly 
good forage crop in late summer and early fall. When sown in 
corn they serve as an excellent supplement to the corn for fattening 
lambs. If pastured b.y alternating the grazing in difi^erent parts and 
not allowing any particular section to be too closely eaten, a field of 
soybeans may be used for a fairly long period. When most of the 
leaves have been eaten off, it is time to move to a fresh portion 
of the field so that the plants on the grazed part will have a chance 



GRASS AND FORAGE CROPS COMPARED 



281 



to leaf again. A heavy fill of wet soybean forage may cause bloat. 
As the pods begin to develop, the grazing must be limited to a short 
time each day or the sheep will get too much of the grain. Soybeans 
cannot withstand frost. 

Cowpeas have many of the same qualities as soybeans, but they 
are not so })alatable and they require a warmer climate. 

Missouri laml) feeders have made good use of this crop by plant- 
ing it in the corn, thus producing a great deal of forage which 







1^' ' ' ' . 'vS^^^H 


^w^ ^s7:£r'!39^^^^Bi|||| 





Fig. 182. — In the rape at the liniversity of Ulinois, Urbana, Ulinois. 

remains green until frost. The I'ipened pods make an excellent 
nitrogenous supplement to the corn. This is excellent feed for ewes 
that are being conditioned for the breeding season, l)ut it is diflKcult 
to get native lambs to eat cow})eas when other, more palatable, feeds 
are available. 

Grass and Forage Crops Compared. — It is impossible to make 
a clear-cut comparison between grass and forage crops as sources of 
green feed for sheep and lambs. Permanent pastures are old 
standbys which nothing else can completely replace as convenient 
feeding grounds, for they can be, and usually are, made use of in 
every month of the year. Their worst feature lies in the fact that 
parasites harmful to sheep accumulate in them. In many instajices 



282 GROWING THE I.AMB 

they become so IjatUy infested as to Ite almost useless. Fortunately 
there are permanent pastures in regions where sheep parasites are 
to be found that for some reason do not become badly infested. 
Sheep thrive on them year after year. 

On the other hand, annual forage crops and such crops as 
clover and alfalfa are by no means parasite proof, but if they are in 
a rotation system of cultivation, the chances are that they will not 
become so badly infested as permanent pastures. 

In recent years many permanent pastures in the middle west of 
the United States have had to give way to grain crops. Instead of 
roomy pastures once so common, are now seen little cramped, over- 
stocked grass lots. These are undoubtedly relatively less efficient for 
sheep than larger pastures, because the grass is not allowed to get 
enough leaf surface to grow well, and the ground, besides becoming 
badly infested with parasites, is tainted with the droppings from 
the sheep and other farm animals. 

The circumstances related above, coupled with the fact that 
such pastures as bluegrass do not last through all of the grazing 
season, raises the question as to whether sheep husbandry can be 
successfully followed by depending largely on forage crops. Un- 
doubtedly, it can. Prime lambs can be produced on farms that do 
not have a foot of permanent grass, and the future will furnish 
numerous instances of it. With clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, rye, 
rape, soybeans, and cowpeas to work into a scheme for handling 
the flock, it will be possible to produce better lambs in the central 
part of the United States than have been produced in that region 
during the last twenty years. 

It is possible to raise choice market laml)s in the dry lot, and 
the time may come when it will be found profitable in certain regions 
to grow them in this way. Or they may be grown on a partial dry- 
lot basis. That is, the ewes may be kept in the dry lot and the 
lambs let out to pasture, or wee versa, (Fig. 183). 

The writer would not belittle the value of permanent pasture. 
There are places where nothing else equals it and sheepmen living 
in such placs are happily located. The only interest they have in 
forage crops is to see whether they can use them to supplement 
their pastures. 

Docking and Castrating Lambs. — A necessary operation in 
the production of laniljs is docking and castrating. Owners of farm 



DOCKING AND CASTRATING 



283 



flocks often fail to do this, but they are pJways criticised as being 
guilty of neglect. It is Ijetter to dock and cas1,rate when the lambs 
are from eight to sixteen days of age, as the resulting " set-back " 
in growth is least at that time. For the sake of convenience, both 
docking and castrating should be done at the same time. Opinions 
vary as to whether the operation should be performed early in the 
day or in the evening, but it seems that the lambs bleed less if they 
are operated upon either before they become active in the morning 
or when they are about to bed down for the night. A bright clear 
day with a prospect of several more to follow is the best kind of 




Fig. 1S3. — Raised in a dry lot, I'nivprsity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. 

weatlier for docking and castrating; healing proceeds faster then 
tliaii when tlie weather is damp and cold. 

The operation sliould be conducted under sanitary conditions. 
While the wounds are healing the lambs should not be exposed to 
storms and they should be on dry, clean bedding at night. 

In docking, the tail should be cut about an inch from the body, 
leaving it a little shorter on the side next the buttock. The opera- 
tion can be performed with a knife, chisel, or docking iron. The 
latter is an instrument with a blunt blade, which upon being heated 
to a dull red, burns its way through the tail and sears over the 
stump or dock so that there is no bleeding. At present a number 
of sheepmen in the western part of the United States are enthusi- 
astically advocating the use of the docking iron (Figs. 184 and 185) . 

In castrating, the end of the sCrotum should be cut off so as to 
permit drainage. The testicles should be grasped firmly between 
tlic tliunib and fingers and drawn out. 'I'lic work should be done 



284 



GROWING THE LAMB 



quickly Imt not roughly, and the wound should be bathed with an 
antiseptic wash (Fig. 186). 

There are many methods of castrating and there have been pro- 
longed controversies as to which is the best, hence, it does not seem 
advisable to outline any particular method. 




Fig. 184. 



Fig. 185. 



Fig. 184. — Docking a lamb with knife. 

Fig. 185. — Docking a lamb with iron. The tail should be severed about one and one- 
fourth inches from the body. 

Market Lambs at Weaning Time. — As a general rule, it is 
better to have the lambs in farm flocks come early (February or 
March), for then one can devote more time to them. They learn to 
eat grain before the grass season opens and are ready to market 
when they are old enough to wean, which is when they are from 
three to four months of age. At this time they should still have 
their " baby fat " and they should weigh 65 to 70 pounds. In 
regions where the summers are hot, lambs make very little gain 



RATIONS FOR SUCIOilNG LAMBS 



285 



through July, August, and early Septeniher, in fact they may lose 
in weight. During this time they are likely to become infested 
with parasites, and as a result some die, others lose weight, and only 
a few remain thrifty and plump. Some of them may be killed by 
dogs. If they are sold more feed is left for the ewes and the ewe 




Fio. 1S6. — Holding a Iamb for castrating, in) head up, (6) head down. The operator 
cuts off the end of the scrotum and draws out the testicles one at a time. The work sliould 
be done quickly and carefully. 

lambs that are to go into the breeding flock. If the owner has 
extensive grass lands and is not in position to grow grain and hay, 
he may have good reason for handling late-boni lambs. Otherwise 
the comjtarativoly early lamb looks to be the better proposition. 

Rations for Suckling Lambs. — The amount of feed consumed 
by lambs from the time they were old enough to eat until they were 



286 



GROWING THE LAMB 



ready for market at weaning time is reported below in pounds per 

head per day. 

(a) From experiments conducted at the Illinois Station: 
Table 11. — The lambs in this experiment were by a pure-bred 

Shropshire ram and out of western ewes weighing about 115 pounds 

when pregnant. 

Ration No. 21 

Lambs and ewes kept in the dry lot 

Feed Consumed Daily 

2 parts bran 
2 parts cracked corn 
2 parts oats 
1 part L.O.M. 4 
.09 alfalfa hay 



Period 


Age 


Weight 
At beginning At close 


1st 


2-G wks. 


ItJ.O 29.5 



.12 grain 



2nd 



3rd 



6-10 wks. 



10-14 wks. 



29.5 



45.0 



45.0 



59.0 



( 'S parts corn 
.(> grain J 2 parts oats 

( 1 part L.O.M. 
.3 alfalfa hay 

r () parts corn 
1.0 grain J 3 parts oats 

( 1 part L.O.M. 
.7 alfalfa hay 



Ration No. 28 

Sixteen ewes and twenty lambs pastured on 1 acre of rye, 1 acre of alfalfa, 

and 1 acre of rape 



Period 
1st 



2nd 



3rd 



Age Weight 

At beginning At close 

2-() wks. 1G.5 30.0 



6-10 wks. 



30.0 



48.0 



10-14 



48.0 



63.0 



■■Linseed oil meal. 



Feed Consumed Daily 

{2 parts bran 
2 parts cracked corn 
2 parts oats 
1 part L.O.M. 
.05 alfalfa hay 

i 3 parts corn 
.3 grain J 2 parts oats 

( 1 part L. O. M. 

6 parts corn 
.4 grain -^ 3 parts oats 
1 part L.O.M. 



RATIONS FOR SUCKLING LAMBS 



287 



Ration No. 29 

Lambs and ewes in dry lot first four weeks; on bluefirass second and 

third periods of four weeks each. 



'eriod 


Age Weight 

At beginning At close 


Feed Consumed Daily 


1st 


2-6 wks. 1G.5 30.0 


f 2 parts bran 

i« ^„:„ J 2 parts cracked corn 
.14 grain ./ ^ 

J 2 parts oats 
( 1 part L.O.]\I. 
.10 alfalfa hay 


nd 


6-10 wks. 30.0 44.-5 


{ 3 parts corn 
.10 grain J 2 parts oats 
( 1 part L.O.M. 



3rd 10-14 wks. 44.:") ;■)()..") / (I parts eorn 

.1,') grain ^ 3 parts oats 
1 part L.O.M. 



Table 12. — The lambs in this experiment were by a pure-l)red 
Hampshire ram and out of western ewes weighing about 115 pounds 
when pregnant. 



Ration No. 30. 
Lambs and ewes kept in dry lot 

Feed Consumed Daily 



Period 
1st 



Age 
2-G wks. 



_ Weight 
.\t beginning At close 



15.5 



28.0 



r2 parts cracked corn 
12 parts crushed oats 

•^1 g^-ain<i part bran 
[l part L.O.M. 

,10 alfalfa hay 



2nd 



3rd 



6-10 wks. 



10-14 wks. 



28.0 



46.0 



46.0 



60.0 



{2 parts corn 
2 parts oats 
1 part bran 
1 part L.O.M. 
.46 alfalfa hay 



1.0 grain 
1.0 hav 



6 parts corn 
3 parts oats 
1 |)art L.O.M. 



288 GROWING THE LAMB 

Ixuiion So. 31 

Sixteen ewes ami twenty lambs pastured on 1 acre of rye, 1 acre of alfalfa, 
and 1 acre of rape 

Period Age Weight Feed Consumed Daily 

At beginning At close 
1st 2-0 wks. IS 35 ^ 2 parts cracked corn 

2 parts cracked oats 
.08 grain ^ , ^ , 

" ^ 1 part bran 

1 part L.O.M. 
.04 alfalfa bay 

2nd 0-10 wks. .S.'S 52 f 2 parts corn 

2 i)arts oats 
Ah gram J 

1 part bran 



1 part L.O.M. 
.40 alfalfa bay 



3rd 10-14 wks. 52 72 ( parts corn 

.7 grain J 3 parts oats 



1 part L.O.M. 
.2 alfalfa bay 



Ration No. 32 

Lambs and ewes kept in tbe dry lot and given free choice of the different 

feeds. ('om])are witli Eation No 30, where the same feeds were 

given l)iit tlie concentrates were mixed 

Feed Consumed Daily 
1st Period 2nd Period 3rd Period 

(Lambs 2-6 wks. old) (Lambs 6-10 wks. old) (Lambs 10-14 wks. old) 

Shelled corn 02 .13 .330 

Ground corn 01 .04 .180 

Whole oats 04 .18 .380 

Ground oats 02 .03 .007 

Bran 03 .07 .110 

Linseed oil meal . . .09 .24 .540 

Alfalfa hay 25 .45 .570 

Weights at beginning 15 lbs. 2S lbs. 45 lbs. 

Weight at close 00 lbs. 



QUESTIONS 289 

(6) From Ohio Station, Bulletin 270, by J. W. Hammond: 
Table 13. — The lambs in this experiment were by a pure-bred 
Southdown ram and out of grade Delaine Merino ewes weighing 
about 85 pounds. The lambs were developed as winter or hot-house 
lambs, and were fed all they would eat from December 19 to 
February 18 in a dry lot. Since it is very difficult to breed for 
fall lambs, it is almost impossible to have a considerable number of 
them born within a brief period. These lambs ranged from 2 to 9 
weeks in age when the experiment began. They averaged 37 pounds 
in weight at the beginning of the experiment and they were slaugh- 
tered when they attained a weight of about 55 pounds. 

Ration No. 33 Ration No. 3-'f 

Slielled corn 65 Shelled corn 0(5 

Alfalfa hay 05 Alfalfa hay 07 

Daily gain 441 Daily gain 411 

Mothers were fed grain mixture Mothers were fed grain mixture 

consisting of corn, 4 parts; linseed consisting of corn, 5 parts; oats, 1 

oil meal, 1 part; corn silage and parts; hran, 2 parts; oil meal, 1 

alfalfa hay. part; corn silage and alfalfa liay. 

Table 14. — The lambs in this experiment were similar in breed- 
ing to those in the experiment referred to in Table 13. They were 
fed 95 days, beginning December 24. Their initial weight was 
about 16 pounds, and since they were not intended for hot-house 
lambs, they were not forced so rapidly as were the lambs in the 
experiment given in Table 13. 

Ration No. 3', Ration No. 36 

Shelled corn 333 l' Corn— 5 parts 

Alfalfa hay 343 . 1 Oats— 2 parts , 

^ ., . ooo Grain < ^ „ ^ > ^26 

Daily gain 322 | Bran — 2 parts ( 

(^Oil meal — 1 part 

Alfalfa hay ' 325 

Daily gain 315 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the general methods of feeding lambs? 

2. At what time during the suckling period should the ewe receive the 

most grain? 

3. What feed would you use to keep up the milk flow? 

4. Discuss the most useful roughages to use at this period. 

19 



290 GROWING THE LAMB 

5. How iiuxch silage may be feci to a ewe during tlie suckling period? 

6. la a variety of feed necessary for the ewes at this period? Why? 

7. Give six rules that may be applied to the feeding of suckling ewes. 

8. When will the lambs begin to eat grain ? 

9. What are lamb creeps? 

10. Describe a method of starting the lambs on grain. 

11. How does a pasture crop affect the consumption of grain by the lambs? 

12. Of what value are forage crops in producing market lambs? 

13. Name six common forage crops and the time of year tliey are available 

for pasture. 

14. Is it necessary to dock and castrate? Why? 
15.. Describe common methods used in docking. 

16. In castrating. 

17. Give five reasons why it is advantageous to sell market lam1)s early 

in the summer. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT 

Weaning the Lambs. — Proper Age for Weaning. — When the 

lambs are not taken from the ewes and sent to market, provision 
must be made for weaning them. They should not be weaned before 
they are three and one-half months okl, and if they are doing well 
and the ewes are still furnishing them with a good quantity of milk, 
it may be best not to w'ean them until they are four or five months old. 

Oftentimes the lambs are not separated from their mothers 
early enough. The ewes reach the point where they no longer give 
much milk, and the lambs, depending more than they should upon 
what little they can get, annoy them by persistently wanting to 
nurse. When a ewe without much milk nurses a pair of robust 
lambs weighing sixty-five pounds or more, she goes through a 
pretty rough experience that is uone too good for her udder, because 
the lambs in suckling hunch at the udder so hard that the rear 
parts of the ewe are almost lifted from the ground. In hot weather, 
if only a little milk is to be had, it does a big lamb, old enough 
to w^ean, little good to keep thrusting its nose after the teat under 
the hot flanks of the ewe. Both mother and lamb are better off 
if separated. There is a natural weaning period, that is, there 
comes a time when the ewes will wean the lambs, l)ut they oiiglit 
to be weaned before this time comes. 

If the lambs are weaned fairly early and placed on pasture or 
forage that has not been grazed by the sheep, they are less likely to 
become badly infested with parasites. This is an important con- 
sideration in places where parasitic troubles must be kept constantly 
in mind. If the weaning is not delayed beyond the projjer time, the 
ewes will have time to recuperate and get in proper condition for 
the breeding season. 

If possible, all of the lambs should be weaned at the same time, 
but in case there are some very late ones, they should be allow^ed to 
stay with their, mothers until they are of sufficient age not to be 
checked in growth or stunted by being deprived of milk. 

Procedure in Weaning. — In flocks kept primarily for ])roduc- 

291 



292 SUMMER MANAGEMENT 

ing market lambs, it is best to separate the ewes and lambs and not 
allow them to be together again. The ewes should lie taken from 
the lambs, that is, the lambs should not be removed to quarters 
entirely strange to them. A week or so before they are to be weaned, 
they should be allowed to graze on the feed intended for them 
through the weaning period. If it is not possible to do this, they 
should be left for a few days on the field to which they are accus- 
tomed, as they do not seem to miss their mothers so much when they 
are in familiar surroundings. It is better, however, to have them 
where the feed is fresh and good, even though the place is strange 
to them, than to leave them where the feed is jwor. 

Another method of weaning is to get the ewes and lambs gradu- 
ally accustomed to being separated. This is a very good method if 
it does not cost too much in labor, for one can begin when the lambs 
are not old enough to do without milk. A fine opportunity is 
afforded to place the lambs on the cleanest, best pasture while the 
ewes are finishing up the old second-rate pasture. By beginning 
early enough, and by allowing the ewes and lambs to be together 
only when they are in the dry lot, one can in large measure keep 
parasites out of the lambs. For this purpose, the plan is even better 
than the English method of hurdling, in which the lambs are 
allowed to run with the ewes and also ahead of them on fresh forage. 

Feeding Lambs after Weaning. — In addition to the best of 
pasture or forage, lambs should receive some grain during the wean- 
ing period and all through the hot months. Oats, corn, wheat, and 
barley can all be utilized as well as such concentrates as wheat bran, 
linseed oil meal or cake, and cottonseed meal. Usually it is not 
necessary to feed more than one-half pound grain per head daily 
if the pasture or forage is good. Oats alone will serve as a good 
grain feed. If the forage or pasture is a leguminous crop, corn 
alone will do very well as the grain part of the ration, but usually 
a mixture such as oats, five parts ; com, five parts, and wheat bran, 
two parts, by weight, is preferable to any one feed. Linseed oil 
meal or cottonseed meal should not form the sole grain ration, as 
they are not suitable for using in large quantities in summer. 

Feeding the lambs a little grain each day affords an opportunity 
for seeing them often and hence for detecting trou1)les before they 
become unmanageable. 

Salt and good water are just as essential to the thrift of lambs 
at weaning time as at any other period of their lives. 



% 



SHELTER AND SHADE IN SUMMER 293 

Separating Lambs. — lu case some of the male laml)s are left 
entire, which should he the case only in pure-hred Hocks, it will he 
necessary to place them by themselves when their sex instinct 
becomes marked. This is necessary because some of the older ew^e 
lambs are likely to breed in the autumn months and also because the 
ram lambs will cause both themselves and the ewes to lose flesh by 
almost constantly teasiiiij the ewes. 

Treatment of Ewes after the Lambs are Weaned. — When 
taken from the lambs the ewes should be placed upon rather dry, 
scant pasture in order to reduce the secretion of milk. Every two 
or three days those that have full, tight udders should be milked. 
After the secretion of milk has been checked so that there is no 
danger of the udder spoiling, the ewes should be given good graz- 
ing in order to get them in fairly good condition before the 
beginning of the breeding season. 

Ewes enjoy gleaning over the farm, and after the lambs are 
weaned, no other run is better for them. At this time they are active 
and hence able to feed over large areas. If given the job of cleaning 
up the neglected fence rows, nooks, and corners, they do so with 
much relish and to their own benefit. When handled in this way 
they often eat down the weeds along the fence rows to such extent 
that mowing is not necessary. In this way weeds are prevented from 
forming seeds and their spread over the farm is greatly reduced. 
Insect breeding places are also destroyed. 

If it is not advisable to allow the ewes to glean over the farm 
after tlie lambs are weaned, they should be given good pasture. 
They do not need as succulent pasture, liowever, as is needed by the 
lambs, and they often fatten on what seems to be a dry, unwhole- 
some pasture of bluegrass or timothy. 

Like the lambs, the ewes should have access to salt and good 
water throughout the summer season. 

Shelter and Shade in Summer. — Shade is of great importance 
in summer to both ewes and lambs. No field in which they are 
confined during the day should be without protection from the hot 
sun (Fig. 187). 

There is difference of opinion as to what constitutes the best 
shade. Trees, of course, are natural provisions for escape from the 
intense heat of the sun, and to the lover of sheep there is no more 
comely sight than a well-fed flock contentedly lying beneath the 



294 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT 



witlespreading branches of a big shade tree. It is not always con- 
venient or economical to have ample shade trees in every field, 
besides, there is a reason for partly condemning trees for shade 
because they cannot be moved from place to place. On this account 
the grass around them is likely to become so badly infested with 
parasites that they are undesirable as resting places for the flock. 
By exercising proper precautions in guarding against parasites, this 




last objection does not necessarily obtain, in which case a good shade 
tree should be regarded as beneficial to the flock (Fig. 187). 

It is more difficult to provide shade in fields having no trees 
and so situated that the sheep cannot conveniently come to the 
buildings. In such fields, shades should be built, either temporary 
or permanent in nature. A cheap permanent shade can be built by 
simply setting posts in the ground to serve as a support to a roof 
made of boards. In rainy weather, however, a roof of this sort lets 
the water through and the resting place of the sheep becomes muddy. 
At somewhat increased cost, this fault can be remedied by covering 
the boards with roofing paper. A shade similar to the one above 
can be jilaced on dimension pieces four by six inches and thus be 
made movable. Roofing paper does not necessarily need to be 



SHELTER AND SHADE IN SUMMER 



295 



placed on the movable shade because it can be moved when the 
gromid beneath it becomes muddy {F\g. 188). 

Light movable shades can be made by using hurdles covered with 
burlap. Set up such a hurdle with the length running north and 
south. Then lay a hurdle on top of this one so that the two form 
a T- This arrangement furnishes shade for both forenoon and 
afternoon, and oue man can do all the work involved in setting it up. 

There are still other ty])es of both ]i(M-niaiieiit and movable shades 




Fig. 188. — A movable sha.l.v A shailr ol fliis sm, t ,aii i>,- hhivcI fr.ni, time to time 
to the spots in the fields that are mot in nectl of manure or to places where the circulation 
of air i.s best. It thus has some advantages over the shade tree. (From Pennsylvania State 
College Circular 49.) 

that are cpiite as good, and possibly better than the types dis- 
cussed here. 

Protection from Summer Rains. — Sometimes in summer there 
are protracted periods of excessive rainfall to which the sheep should 
not be continually exposed. It is well to draw them in close around 
the barns and allow them to stay under shelter the greater part of 
the time. The severest of all times for sheep are periods of ex- 
cessive heat accompanied by great humidity. Such periods are still 
more severe u))on them if tliey are constantly wet from rain, 

A well-arranged barn is always a convenience in sunnner as a 
refuge both from the sun and rains, and an attempt should be made 
to have jiasture or forage near it so that in the worst periods, this 
can be utilized bv the flock. 



296 SUMMER MANAGEMENT 

Summer Enemies of the Flock. — After the shepherd has pro- 
vided ample pasture, forage, water, salt, shade, and shelter for his 
flock in summer, he must still remember that there are certain 
insidious enemies which he must guard against. Most of these 
enemies are parasitic in nature and hence hard to combat. The 
most common and the most dreaded of these parasites in farm 
flocks is the stomach worm. 

Stomach Worm. — The stomach worm {HcBmonchus contortus) 
made its first deadly attack upon the flocks in the central part of 
the United States in 1893 and 1894. It was probably brought to 
this country in sheep imported from England. At any rate, it was 
a new enemy to those who had handled Merinos, and when the 
savage attack of 1893 and 1894 came, nearly all flock owners in the 
middle-western section of the United States were nonplussed and 
helpless. Thousands of lambs and many old sheep died in Ohio, 
Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois. Hundreds engaged in sheep rais- 
ing were so discouraged that they closed out their flocks and gave 
up sheep forever. Since that time, a large percentage of the native 
lambs sent to the open markets have been badly infested with 
stomach worm. Being unthrifty and unfinished, they have been 
the object of scathing criticism on the part of commission men 
and buyers for the packers. Sheepmen are gradually learning how 
to keep the stomach worm in check, but it is still an insidious 
enemy that is sure to bring trouble to the farm flock owner who 
is not always keenly alive to the possibility of its presence (Fig. 
189). 

Life History of the Stomach Worm. — To Ransom,* of the 
Zoological Division of the Bureau of x^nimal Industry, more than 
to anyone else, belongs the credit of determining the life history of 
the stomach worm. He learned what takes place from the time the 
worms mate until the sheep become infested, or perhaps reinfested. 
The mating process takes place in the abomasum (known as the 
fourth or true stomach of the sheep), where all of the worms live 
while in the host, except a few that drift over into the duodenum. 
The eggs, which are microscopic, are deposited in the abomasum 
and pass out of the body in the feces. Heat hastens the time of 
hatching, which may occur in a few hours, days, or weeks, accord- 

^ Circulars 93 and 102, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, 
D. C. 



LIFE HISTORY OF STOMACH WORMS 



297 



ing to the temperature. Either dryness or freezing temperature 
will kill the eggs and the very young larva. The newly hatched 
larva feeds upon the fecal matter in which it lives until it de- 
velops into the final stage outside the sheep or host. This is called 
the final free living stage, and the time from hatching until this 
stage is reached is also a matter of temperature, ranging from a few 
days to a few weeks. On attaining the final free living stage the 



Fig. 189. 



Fig. 190. 




^— a>a 



A D C 

Fig. 189. — Stomach worm (Hcemonchus conlortus). A, female larva X 5; B, male; 
C, anterior end of body showing: n.r., nerve ring; c.p., cervical papilla; es, oesophagus. (From 
Bureau of Animal Industry Bui. 127.) 

Fig. 190. — Ensheathed stomach worm. In this stage the worm is highly resistant to 
hot, cold and dry weather, and hence is hard to destroy. (From 22d Annual Report South 
Carolina Station.) 



larva becomes enveloped in a thin, horny-like coat, called a chitinous 
sheath, is no longer able to take in food, and hence must obtain its 
nourishment from material stored up in its own intestine (Fig. 190) . 
At temperatures above 40 degrees F. the ensheathed larva or 
embryo can move about, very slowly of course, and it becomes more 
active as the temperature rises. It is very unlike the newly hatched 
larva? and eggs in that it is not killed even by long periods of 
freezing or drying. When the vegetation is wet from rain or dew, 



298 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT 



the sheathed larvse crawl uj) grass or weed blades and stems, coming 
to rest when the moisture evaporates and resuming the journey 
when the vegetation is again wet. In this way they get up high 
enough to be taken in by a sheep or lamb when grazing. After 
being swallowed, they continue their development and attain ma- 
turity in two or three weeks (Fig, 191). 

All that is known of the life history of the stomach worm has 
been very briefly reviewed in the foregoing. So far as the writer 
is aware, no one has yet determined how long an individual worm 





0.1 mnL 



Fig. 191. 



-The ensheaved larva of the stomach worm on grass blades. 
Animal Industry Circular No. 93.) 



(From Bureau of 



may live in the stomach of the host. If, as is maintained, none of 
the eggs hatch in the stomach, then it would seem possible to 
determine this point, and it would be valuable information. The 
writer has observed very heavy infestation in sheep after they have 
been confined continually in dry lots during the winter months. 
Lambs born in the same dry lots were carried through entire 
summer seasons without becoming infested. Therefore, it would 
seem that the worms that were in the sheep when they. came from 
the pastures remained in them throughout the entire winter. 

Examining for Stomach Worms. — Mature stomach worms are 
from three-fourths to an inch in length. They look like a red and a 
white thread intertwined. In conducting a post mortem for the 
purpose of determining whether there is an infestation of stomach 



ERADICATION OF STOMACH WORMS 299 

worms it is well to examine the animal shortly after death — be- 
fore it has become cold, if possible — for otherwise the worms may 
be dead and disintegrated beyond recognition. Before opening the 
stomach, it should be placed so that a slit can be cut in it which 
will permit of examining the liquids before they escape. If many 
live worms are present, they can be seen wriggling in the liquids, 
and are found on the inner wall of the stomach. 

How the Worm Does Harm. — How does the stomach worm do 
harm? By sucking blood from the mucus lining of the stomach. 
It has a spear-like instrument called a buccal tooth, which it thrusts 
into the l)lood-vessels and draws nourishment from the blood of 
the host. After knowing the manner in which tbe worm lives, we 
cnn easily undevstaiid why a sheep or lamlj heavily infested may 
have a pale skin, lusterless wool, very little blood in the veins of the 
white of the eye, disordered digestion characterized by a depraved 
a])petite for dirt, or by scours. It is also easy to understand why 
heavily-infested animals get so thin in flesh and why lambs become 
so weakened that they die. When any of the above symptoms appear, 
an examination should be made to ascertain whether the worms are 
present even if it involves killing one or two of the most suspected 
animals. If an animal is heavily infested, hundreds of worms are 
present. A hundred or less would of themselves check the well- 
doing of a lamb but little, although the presence of such a numl)er 
•is indicative of the possibility of gathering more from the pastures 
on which the animal has l)ccn running. 

Eradication of Stomach Worms. — Unfortunately, we have 
not learned how totally to eradicate stomach worms from a flock 
of sheep, nor have we learned how to handle pastures or other 
growths from which sheep graze, so that we can feel sure they will 
not pick up a new infestation. But we have learned how to hold 
the infestation in check to such extent that except in occasional 
instances, the flock will appear thirfty and the lambs will grow into 
a choice jn-oduct. 

Changing Pastures. — Undoubtedly changing often to new graz- 
ing grounds helps a groat deal to check infestation. If it were pos- 
sible to move to new pasture every ten days, the lambs woukl seldom, 
if ever, have outward indications of stomach worms. Such a 
method of handling may be impracticable for all except owners of 
pure-bred flocks, but a rotation on tliree to five different grazing 
grounds would help a great deal. On a well-fenced farm where 



300 SUMMER MANAGEMENT 

diversified farming or livestock farming is practiced, this much rota- 
tion is perhaps possil)le witliout involving too much expenditure in 
fencing. The nunil)er of grazing places can he increased hy the 
use of temporary fencing if there is a field which is to he used hy 
sheep only. A fence three feet high and made of No. 11 wire serves 
admirahly for temporary use and with it the flock can l)e placed on 
fresh grazing every few days. In this method of handling, shade 
and water often have to be provided. Light, movable shades can be 
made at moderate cost, and since sheep are not heavy consumers of 
water, the problem of drink is seldom serious. 

Ploiving the land and sowing to forage crops upon which sheep 
can graze helps a great deal in keeping down infestation. For 
example, a pasture in which there are many stomach worms may be 
thoroughly plowed and sown to rye which will furnish pasture in 
late autumn, through the winter, and in early spring. Then the 
rye may be turned under and the land sown to rape, which will 
furnish a great deal of green feed in summer and early autumn. 
But there is danger of over-estimating the protection these growths 
give against stomach worms. Evidently some have assumed that 
the ensheathed larva^ do not crawl up rape and rye stems and blades, 
but they do. One of the worst infestations the writer has ever seen 
in lambs came from grazing continuously on a small rape lot for 
several weeks, and the veteran Shropshire breeder, George Allen, 
states that he had a similar experience. In case animals are infested 
when they go on such a growth, it is obvious that they will become 
reinfested just as soon as the worm eggs they east in their feces 
hatch out, attain the ensheathed stage, and crawl up on the plants 
upon which the sheep or lambs feed. Nevertheless the man who 
uses forage crops rationally will have in his flock fewer stomach 
worms than the man who depends on old permanent pastures. 

Keeping Host Aimnah Off Pastures. — Is there a way of ridding 
an old pasture of a bad infestation of stomach worms? There is. 
It consists of keeping sheep and other animals which serve as host 
to the worm entirely off the pasture for practically one year's time. 
Stomach worms also infest cattle, goats, deer, American bison, etc., 
and therefore none of these animals should graze on the pasture, but 
horses and hogs could be allowed upon it. 

Drenches. — Infestation of stomach worm can also be held in 
check by drenching, and there are a number of proprietary remedies 



ERADICATION OF STOMACH WOIJMS 301 

(salts, powders, and liquids) which many farmers evidently believe 
help iu keeping the worm under control. 

(1) Gasoline. — Of the drenches, gasoline is the one most com- 
monly used by flock-owners in the United States. It should be given 
on three successive mornings after the animals have been kept away 
from all food and drink for 16 hours, and after the dose is given 
they should be fasted for two or three hours more. Each dose 
should be measured separately and given in milk, linseed oil, or 
flaxseed tea. Whole sweet milk, about five ounces with each dose 
for both sheep and lambs is the medium most frequently employed. 
One-fourth ounce of gasoline for lambs and one-half ounce for sheep 
are the sizes of doses most frequently advised. The writer, how- 
ever, after considerable experience, has ado])ted larger doses be(!ause 
they seem more effective. Lambs at weaning time are given one- 
fourth ounce on the first morning, one-half ounce (one tablespoon- 
ful) on the second, and three-fourths ounce on the third. Sheep 
are given one-half, three-fourths, and one ounce, respectively, on 
succeeding mornings. Just before drenching, the gasoline and milk 
or other medium should ])e shaken vigorously in order to have the 
gasoline mixed with the medium while the drench is being swal- 
lowed. It is said that gasoline should never be given with water. 

(2) Coal-iar Creosote. — Coal-tar creosote solution is made by 
shaking together one ounce of coal-tar creosote and ninety-nine 
ounces of water. The doses of this one per cent mixture recom- 
mended by Stiles are as follows: T>«mbs -i to VZ months old, 2 to 4 
ounces ; sheep, 3 to 5 ounces. Coal-tar creosote, so-called, seems to 
vary considerably in composition and this has been a serious 
objei'tion to its use. 

(3) Copper Sulfalf. — ('Opper sulfate solution is prepared by 
dissolving one ])ound of pure copper sulfate crystals finely pow- 
dered in 91^ U. S. gallons of warm water. It is better to dis- 
solve the crystals in a gallon of boiling water and then add cold 
water and mix thoroughly. The dose for a three-months-old lamb 
is 34 ounce; for a six-months-old lamb, II/2 ounces; a yearling 2"V^ 
to 3 ounces, and an old sheep 3i/'2 ounces. As with gasoline, the 
animals should be deprived of all feed and water prior to the 
drenching, if either coal-tar creosote or copjier sulfate is given, and 
those treaiod with the latter should not have water for from 12 to 24 
hours after dosing. Rut unlike gasoline, neither of these remedies 
must be given on three successive days. 



302 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT 



Hoiv to Drench. — The animal should be allowed to stand while 
being drenched, as it is less likely to become strangled. It should 
be backed into a comer or against a wall and the man givino- the 
drench should stand astride or at the side in order to 'i:eep it from 
twisting about. The nose should be lifted no higher than neces- 
sary to get the dose down, for the higher it is lifted the greater 
the probability of causing strangling. If the drench is given from 




Fig. 192. — Drenching a shoep. Bark the slipcp into a corner so it cannot twist about, 
keep the head in as nearly natural position as possible, introduce the neck of the bottle at 
the corner of the mouth — tip the bottle up and down to prevent the hquid from running 
into the throat too faat. 



a bottle it should have a long, slim neck which should be inserted at 
tlie corner of the mouth. In order not to give the dose too fast, the 
bottle containing it should be tipped gently up and down while the 
drench is being swallowed (Fig. 193). 

A metal syringe with a nozzle about three inches long and a 
barrel large enough to hold one dose {i.e., the milk and gasoline) 
is a splendid instrument for drenching, although the work proceeds 
a little slower than with a bottle. By placing the dose in a glass 
graduate, such as druggists commonly use, the gasoline and milk 



NODULE DISEASE 303 

can be thoroughly olmnied togelluT hy workino- the piston of the 
syringe. Then too, when drenching, the pressure I'roni tlie i)i.ston 
forces the liquid so far down the throat that the sheep or lamb does 
not seem to notice the gasoline. This is an important point, for if 
the animal is not excited and struggling when the dose is being 
swallowed, it goes directly to the fourth stomach, where the worms 
are located, but otherwise it is likely to go into the first stomach, or 
paunch, where it will do practically no good. 

When to Drench.. — ^The whole flock should be drenched at wean- 
ing time and again about ten days later. In case the infestation is 
very bad, it may be necessary twice or three times more at intervals 
of about thirty days. 

Prevention of Stomach Worms by Use of the Dry Lot. — 
There is one way in which it is possible to raise lambs so that they 
will be practically free from stomach worms, even though their dams 
are badly infested. That way is to raise them in the dry lot — a lot 
in which no plant is to be found growing. Such lambs have all the 
manifestations of health and post mortems show them to be almost 
free from infestation. Out of a number of stomachs examined, 32 
was the largest number of worms found in any individual by 
the writer, and this animal had a wool ball in its stomach. In 
case of pure-bred flocks becoming heavily infested, it may be advisable 
to raise a crop of lambs in the dry lot, for in so doing, clean, 
vigorous breeding animals can be secured. Then, too, other un- 
desirable internal parasites may be avoided at the same time. 

Nodule Disease. — ISTodule disease is due to a parasite ((Esoph- 
agostornum col'iunbianiun) , the embryos of which form knots or con- 
cretions inside both the large and small intestines. In the worst 
cases these concretions are thickly studded on the intestine along its 
entire course, and their harmful ett'ects come from their interfer- 
ence wdth the processes of digestion and absorption of food materials. 

The life history of the parasite wdiich causes nodule disease is 
not well known. It seems that the mature female lays her eggs in 
the intestine, where they hatch in a short time, and in some manner 
pass through the mucus lining of the bowel and become embedded 
or encysted in the intestinal wall. As nearly as is known the irrita- 
tion caused l)y the embryos give rise to the concretions. Dalrymple, 
of the Louisiana Station, found that the parasite which causes 
nodule disease is swallowed by the sheep while grazing; what hap- 
pens to the ]inrasito from the time it leaves the concretion in the 



304 



SUMMER MANAGEMENT 



intestine until it is swallowed I)y a grazing animal is unknown. The 
parasite is beyond the reach of drugs while it is encysted in the walls 
of the intestines. 

The effects of an attack of nodule disease are not immediate, 
since it takes some time for the knotty concretions to develop. Nor 
is the attack often fatal in the north central and eastern states. But 
deaths frequently result from the disease in the southern states. Its 
effects are most injurious when combined with those of other diseases 
such as stomach worm or tape-worm (Fig. 193). 







^^^^l;,.^ 


^ 


^ 




1 






^ "■^ 


^^tll'' ■ 


"^1 


*a*^fc^^'- 


^^/^^ 




K»ll •■ 




i^^te^^' iS$ iiS- "■ 




■BHB|^*^^^^ ^w 




^^^K^^ '■*' 




m,.^,:"". ■' . . 



Fig. 193. — Nodule disease. Note the knots or nodules that have been caused by the 
parasites. (From Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletin 143.) 



If one has a flock badly infested with nodule disease he can 
secure a crop of lambs free from it by raising them in a lot entirely 
free from vegetation. 

Tape-worms are of six types. They are found in sheep in 
nearly all parts of the world. In the United States it is somewhat 
more common in the western than in the central and eastern parts, 
where stomach worms are worse. In the adult stage, it inhabits 
the small intestine, and since it develops great length of body (sev- 
eral feet), it is needless to say that it is a greedy feeder and that it 
saps the vitality of the host. The symptoms of tape-worm are very 
much the same as those of stomach worm, except that the infested 



THE MAGGOT FLY 305 

animal often has a rapacious appetite. IJansom, of the United 
States Bureau of Animal Industry, after mailing an extensive study 
of tape-worm in sheep, did not advise a remedy that will remove 
it from the live animal. However, tiie following is recommended hy 
several writers: Oil of male shield fern, 1 dram; raw linseed oil, 
2 to 4 ounces. Give the dose after the animal has heen fasted 16 
to 20 hours. 

Sonne types of tape-worm infest sheep in the cyst or larval 
stage only, the adults living in dogs, etc. The cysts are found in 
brain, liver and muscles, and may cause sheep much discomfort. 

Grub in the Head. — The sheep bot-fly {Estrus ovis) deposits 
larva' instead of eggs. Its favorite place for deposition is in the 
nostrils of the sheep whence the larvae work their way up into the 
nasal cavities. The fly causes the sheep a great deal of annoyance 
at the time it deposits its larv», both by its buzzing about, and by 
its coming in contact with the sheep's nose. Anyone who has ob- 
served sheep much in summer has seen certain individuals in the 
flock. stamping their feet, ducking their heads, and rubbing their 
noses in the dust or dirt. All of these actions are caused l)y the 
bot-fly. 

After the larv« have reached their destination, up in* the nasal 
cavities, they fasten themselves to the lining meml)ranes by means 
of little hooks. These, along with the pressure of the growing grub, 
cause a great deal of irritation, and the sheep resorts to a violent 
snorting cough in its effort to dispel the grub. Not infrequently the 
grub so affects the brain as to cause death, and they always cause 
much discomfort, which is attended by loss of flesh. 

The most effective means of combating bot-fly is to keep the 
noses of the sheep smeared with pine tar through the summer 
months. The tar repels the fly and the larva3 are not deposited 
w^here they can gain access to the head. Some sheepmen say that 
the sheep will attend to the smearing of their own noses if salt or 
grain is placed in a trough containing tar. 

It is doubtful whether bot-fly causes as much trouble on the 
prairies as it does in wooded regions. In fact, the writer does not 
recall having seen flocks affected with grub on the prairie farms 
of Illinois. 

The Maggot Fly {Miisca vomitorium) . — Wounds and places 
befouled by dung or urine are likely to attract the maggot fly. The 
oily, gummy wool about the base of ^lerino rams' horns may also 
20 



306 SUMMER MANAGEMENT 

attract them. The larvaj hatch out within a few liours after the 
eggs are deposited in the befouled places. They grow very fast 
and cause the sheep a great deal of discomfort. They can be 
killed by applying a strong solution of sheep dip or spirits of 
turpentine. Kerosene is also effective in killing them. The dip, 
mixed one part to fifty parts of water, is to be preferred to the other 
remedies as it is less severe on the skin of the sheep. A sheep plainly 
shows when it has maggots by squirming and twisting in an effort 
to get its mouth to the irritated spot. Maggots should not be 
allowed to remain on the sheep long, since they soon eat through 
the skin and recovery from the injury is very slow. After they 
have been killed, the injured place should be treated with some 
soothing ointment, such as carbolized oil or vaseline. Saratoga 
ointment, a rather expensive remedy, is very effective in restoring 
the broken skin and in ])ringing the injured part back to normal 
condition. 

Ticks, Lice, and Scab Mites are external parasites that may 
give trouble at any time of the year. They should be exterminated 
in the summer or fall while the weather is warm and the wool 
is short. 

Lice {Trichocephalus sperocephalus) . — Sheep lice are white and 
reddish-brown parasites having almost the same color as the skin of 
the sheep. They are about one-tweatieth of an inch long, but be- 
cause of their color are rather hard to see when on the sheep. They 
are usually present in largest numbers on the back just behind the 
shoulders, but in bad cases they are on nearly all parts of the body. 
On account of the irritation they cause, the sheep is very uncom- 
fortable and often rubs out a large portion of its fleece in trying to 
get relief. A thorough dipping will kill lice, but since the eggs are 
not destroyed by the dip, it requires a second dipping completely 
to get rid of them. It pays well to dip lousy sheep, for if it is not 
done, a great deal of the wool crop will be lost, and if nothing more 
were accomplished than the relief to the animals, the dipping 
would be well worth while. When dipping is not possible. Baker - 
advises rubbing the affected parts with a mixture composed of equal 
parts of lard and sulfur (Fig. 194). 

Ticks (Melophagus oviniis). — ^The sheep tick is a flat, brownish, 
wingless fly that subsists on the blood it sucks from the skin of the 

* Baker, "Sheep Diseases," 1916. 



THE SCAB MITE 



307 



sheep. It travels all over the sheep's body, but it seems to have a 
preference for the bell}' and under side of the neck. In piercing the 
skin, it causes more or less irritation, and a sheep with many ticks 
on it suffers and loses in weight and strength. It also loses wool 
from rubbing. When the first warm days come, the ticks leave the 
old sheep, and take to the lambs. If they are not eradicated, the 
lambs are checked in growth and stunted. 

Ticks seldom prove fatal to the host and are such conmion pests 
that flock-owners are many times unaware of the amount of injury 
they do. By consistently following the prac- 
tice of dipping it is possible to eradicate thorn 
and there is no good excuse for having them 
in the flock. 

The whole flock should be dipped shortly 
after the shearing has been completed. At that 
time the weather is usually warm and favor- 
able for dipping; the old sheep just out of 
their coats carry very little of the dip out 
of the vat, and most of ■ the ticks have gone 
over to the lambs, making it imperative that 
they be dipped. Ten days after the first dip- 
ping, the whole flock should be dipped again 
to get rid of ticks hatched from eggs that were 
deposited before the first dipping. In the 
autumn before the warm days have passed, 
careful examination should be made for ticks and lice, and if any 
are present, the whole flock should be dipped twice as before. 

When sheep are badly infested with ticks in winter, it is good 
practice to remove the wool if warm quarters can be provided. 
Many of the ticks are taken off with the wool and the sheep destroy 
with their teeth most of those left on the body (Fig. 195). 

The Scab Mite (Ps&ropfes commiinifi ovis). — Scab mites are 
much smaller than either ticks or lice, but if they are placed on 
a dark background they can be seen with the naked eye. They are 
light-colored and the females are about one-fortieth of an inch long 
and the males one-fiftieth of an inch.'' By piercing the skin of the 
sheep in the act of feeding, the mite causes inflammation and irrita- 
tion. As the mites multiply, serum oozes from the skin, and as the 




Fig. 194.— Adult sheep 
louse. (Prom Kentucky 
Station Bulletin No.l43.) 



Baker, " Sheep Diseases," 1916. 



308 SUMMER MANAGEMENT 

exudation dries a scab or crust is formed. Beneath this crust the 
mites continue to irritate the skin and to multiply with great 
rapidity. As they increase in numbers, they spread over the body 
of the sheep until practically the whole of it is covered unless some 
method is adopted to check them. The wool drops off where the scab 
or crust forms, and the sheep presents a very haggard and sorry 
appearance. But the disease ought to be detected long before this 
stage is reached. 

The first symptom of scab is uneasiness caused by itching, which 




Fig. 195. — Adult sheep tick. (From Kentucky Station Bulletin 143.) 

the sheep tries to allay by biting or pulling at the wool near the 
affected spot and by rubbing. This scratching and rubbing against 
posts, fences, and buildings will distribute many of the mites, which 
adhere to the bits of scab and wool that have been rulibed off. It is 
largely in this way that other individuals become infested. 

When scab is found in a flock the only thing to be done is to 
dip the entire flock before the trouble has time to spread farther. 
This work must be thoroughly done. Since many of the mites are 
under the scabs, they are hard to reach with the dip unless the 
scabs are first soaked or broken down by rubbing with some rough 
object, such as a corn cob or piece of wood. One dipping is not 
sufficient in that it does not destroy the eggs. After the first 
dipping the sheep should be turned l>ack into their pen, where they 



LIME-SULFUR DIP 



309 



will continue to rub and disinfect the walls or fences. The second 
dipping shoidd occur ten days after the first. 

Scab has been eradicated from most sections of the United 
States. By enforcing dipping and quarantine, the U. S. Bureau 
of Animal Industry has done a splendid piece of work in cleaning 
up the flocks of the western states. In this work lin^ie-sulfur dip 
has been used more than any other solution (Fig. 196). 




FiQ. 196. 



-Sheep scab mite, dorsal view — -male and female. 
Industry Bulletin 142.) 



(From Bureau of Animal 



Lime-sulfur Dip. — The formula for the lime-sulfur dip used by 
the U. S, Bureau of Animal Industry is as follows : 

Unslaked lime 8 pounds 

Flowers of sulfur 24 pounds 

Water 100 gallons 



In preparing the mixture, slake the lime in a little water, to 
which add the sulfur slowly and stir constantly. Transfer the 
mass to a vessel containing thirty gallons of hot water and boil for 
two hours with frequent stirring to prevent the lime-sulfur paste 
from caking on tlie bottom of the vessel. Add water from time to 



310 SUMMER MANAGEMEN1' 

time to replace that lost by evaporation. The boiling causes the 
lime to combine with the sulfur, making calcium sulfide, which is 
the active agent in the dip that kills the mite. This mixture, a 
chocolate-colored mass, is then transferred to a barrel and allowed 
to settle for several hours, after which the clear solution is dipped 
from the top of the barrel or else drawn from it by making a hole in 
the side about three or four inches from the bottom. The sediment 
is largely uncombined lime and sulfur, and if stirred up into the 
clear solution will injure the wool. Enough water should be added 
to the clear solution to make 100 gallons. The water added should 
be hot enough so that the temperature of the preparation in the vat, 
after being well mixed, will register from 100 to 105 degrees F. 

Kentucky Station Bulletin 143 gives the following comment on 
lime-sulfur dip : 

" This well-known dip is very effective in the treatment of sheep 
scab. It is also one of the cheapest of dips. It does, on the whole, 
a slight damage to the wool, even if properly prepared — more 
noticeable in fine than in coarse wools. It is caustic to the oper- 
ator's hands. Some dealers object to it because it gives the wool 
a washed appearance, consequently the sheep do not look in as good 
condition for immediate market as where some other dip is used. 

" The IT. S. Bureau of Animal Industry has reached the con- 
clusion that it has but little effect in destroying the sheep tick, hence 
should not be used if the sheep are afflicted with both scab-mite and 
tick. However, with these objections to the lime-sulfur dip, a few 
of the large sheepmen in this state use it when their sehep have 
become badly affected with the scab mite." 

Tobacco dips are effective remedies for scab and they are said to 
be non-injurious to the wool. The active agent in them which kills 
the scab mite is nicotine. These dips also kill sheep lice and ticks, 
and, therefore, can be made use of as general dips. 

Various arsenical dips have been prepared, but as home-made 
decoctions prepared by a formula little use has been made of them. 
If the writer mistakes not the famous proprietary dip manufactured 
by William Cooper and Nephews is regarded as an arsenical dip. 

The various coal-tar dips are among the most pleasant to use. 
They are easy to prepare ; they are healing and disinfecting, and 
they leave the skin in healthy condition. Many of the manufactured 
or proprietary dips contain coal-tar products. 

Manufactured Dips. — Various prescriptions are available for 



OVERHEATING 311 

making dips at home. But in treating Tor lice and ticks (scab is 
rare in the United States, except in a few states) it is cheaper and 
more satisfying to rely on the manufactured dips. As a rule, they 
are efficient, and reliable directions for their use are always sent out 
with them. 

Foot-rot is an old, old ailment with sheep, and directions for its 
control have been written for centuries. There are two forms: 
One, non-contagious, caused by too much wet weather; the other is 
contagious, and is caused by the microorganism, Bacillus necropho- 
rous. The contagious form is hard to deal with, as in the worst 
cases the animal is very lame for a long time. The foot is hot and 
swollen around the coronary band. In this region soft, greenish 
spots develop which break and emit pus having a very putrid odor. 
A good remedy is a strong copper-pulfate solution applied once or 
twice daily. In chronic cases a good method of treatment consists 
of packing coppor-sulfate crystals in the pus openings around the 
coronary band. These crystals attack the dead tissue and destroy 
the cause of the trouble, the bacteria. 

Sheep having contagious foot-rot should not be allowed to run 
with the flock. 

Goitre. — Sheep sometimes develop goitre. The writer is in- 
debted to R. J. Stone for the following remedy : 

Iodine (crystals) 1 oz. 

Potassium iodide 6 drs. 

Vaseline 4 oz. 

Mix tlioroufjlily. 

Shear off the wool and a])ply with a swab every other day. 

Overheating. — When the temperature gets above 88 degrees F. 
and the humidity is great, there is danger of one or more members 
of the flock becoming overheated. An overheated sheep or lamb is 
stiff. It trembles while on its feet and is unable to walk far without 
lying down. The first thing to do for it is to carry it to a cool, 
shady place. It should then be given Epsom salts, dissolved in 
water (two and one-half ounces for a lamb and four ounces for a 
sheep) and a teaspoonful of tincture of aconite. 

When an overheated sheep is so badly affected that it can not 
get up, R. J. Stone gives the following treatment : Strychnine, one- 
fiftieth grain, three times a day for three days, then one-twenty- 
fifth grain at night, and one-fiftieth grain in the morning and at 
noon, and increasing gradually to one-twenty-fifth grain three times 



312 SUMMER MANAGEMENT 

daily until recovery or until the animal is able to walk about. Ee- 
duce doses gradually for about one week. 

It is advisable to shear an overheated sheep, but care must be 
used because the animal will die if it gets excited and exerts 
itself much. 

Predatory animals are a menace to the flock in all seasons of 
the year, but especially so in summer when the sheep are in the 
fields far out from the winter quarters. 

Of all the predatory animals, the dog is the worst in the middle 
west and eastern parts of the United States, but in a few places 
between the Mississippi Eiver and the Eocky Mountains wolves 
and coyotes must be contended with. 

In many places farmers have been forced to quit keeping sheep 
because of dogs. Were dogs controlled, farm flocks would be much 
more numerous than they are. In 1914, the United States Bureau of 
Animal Industry, upon inquiring as to what prevents the keeping of 
sheep on farms, received many replies, over 58 per cent of which gave 
dogs as the cause. These replies vividly picture the need of laws 
that will eliminate cur dogs and keep all other dogs under proper 
control. When good laws are secured, sheepmen must have courage 
enough to have them enforced. 

There is no way of equipping the flock to insure it against an 
attack of dogs. Putting bells on a number of sheep assists some, 
but the discordant jangling characteristic of American sheep bells 
will not stop a bold dog bent on mischief. If the field in which the 
sheep are running is near the farm residence provision can per- 
haps he made for allowing them a road to the farm buildings, so that 
when they are chased by dogs they can come near enough to awaken 
someone to come to their rescue. But this plan cannot be depended 
upon, as often neither the sheep nor the dogs make enough noise 
to awaken persons sound asleep. One other recourse is to place the 
fiock in dog-proof pens at night. This requires a great deal of 
labor, and it prevents the flock from feeding at the most desirable 
time. 

As soon as it is discovered that sheep have been wounded and 
worried by dogs, they should be brought to the barns, where there 
are conveniences for giving them the necessary attention. The 
first thing to do is to locate all the wounds, including even the 
slightest tooth marks, and to rub them thoroughly, though gently, 
with carbolized oil (olive oil, 99 parts; concentrated carbolic acid, 



J 



QUESTIONS 313 

1 part). Keep up this treatment every day until the wounds are 
healing nicely. Thereafter, treat occasionally to insure keei)ing the 
wounded places disinfected. 

For some time after sheep have been worried by dogs they are 
very nervous and become easily excited even though the cause is 
slight. Therefore, they should be kept in a quiet place where tliey 
may receive nutritious feed and where it is not necessary to take 
more than a moderate amount of exercise. 

Coyotes, wolves, bobcats, and mountain lions are a great annoy- 
ance and expense to the owners of sheep in the western part of the 
United States. The coyote is the worst in the lot, and an organized 
effort to exterminate it is being prosecuted. The Federal (Jovern- 
ment is assisting by appropriating money to pay trained liunters and 
trappers. Several states give liberal bounties for coyote scalps and 
the sheepmen themselves are doing all tbey can, not only to ex- 
terminate the coyote, but also other predatory animals. 

QUESTIONS 

1. When should tlie lambs be weaned? 

2. What are the disadvantages of weaning lambs too early? 

3. Discuss the two methods of weaning as practiced by shepherds. 

4. Of what value is bluegrass as a pasture? 

5. What are the dangers of pasturing alfalfa and clover ? 

6. Discuss fully the treatment of bloat. 

7. Name three common forage crops for summer pasture. 

8. What feed should be given the lambs when they are weaned? 
!). Of what value is shade in summer? 

10. What are some of the common summer enemies of the sheep? 

1 1. (iive the life history of the stomach worm. 

12. What are the symptoms of stomach worms? 

13. Give a treatment for stomach worms. 

14. Where does the sheep bot-fly deposit its larvae? 

1.5. In what way would you treat a sheep with maggots? 

16. How do external parasites injure sheep? 

17. How can the presence of lice be detected? 

15. What is the remedy for scab? 

19. What are the best times for dipping sheep? 

20. What are the symptoms of overheating in sheep? 

21. What predatory animals give the most trouble to the sheepman? 



CHAPTER XXXV 
THE WOOL CROP 

Importance of Wool. — A statement often made in favor of 
keeping sheep is that they yield two products, mutton and wool; 
but, in many cases, the wool crop is taken as a matter of course and 
its value is not fully appreciated. In flocks where the production 
of lambs for market is the chief object, the income from the wool 
is about thirty per cent of the total income from the flock. This 
estimate is based on the assumption that the average weight of 
fleece is eight pounds and that there will be one lamb marketed for 
each sheep shorn. If receipts were carefully itemized for a series 
of years, they would very likely show that the wool constitutes 
more than thirty per cent of the total income from the flock, for 
the breeding ewe produces one fleece before she raises a lamb. 
Further, she always produces a fleece, but she does not always 
raise a lamb. 

By giving careful attention to the wool product, the income 
from the flock can be materially increased. Ewes should be selected 
for their wool characteristics as well as for their mutton character- 
istics ; there should be an ambition to market not only prime lambs, 
but first-class wool as well. 

The Requisites of Wool. — Good wool is true in structure, 
uniform in fineness, strong, not excessive in yolk, and comparatively 
clean. 

Trueness of Structure.^ — A fleece is not true in structure if it 
contains " off-colored "' fibers and kemps. Kemps are abnormal 
fibers composed of horny material, which ate objectionable because 
they are brittle and do not take dyes well. They indicate inferior 
breeding. Wools containing them in quantity are worth several 
cents per pound less than they would otherwise be. Black fibers 
or " off-colored " fibers mixed in with white wool reduce the value 
because the wool cannot be used in making white cloth. Yellow- 
ish, buff-tinged, and dingy wools are often less desirable than white 
because they do not always scour out pure white (Fig. 197). 

^ For structure of wool fibre see Chapter V. 
314 



STRENGTH OF FIBER 



315 



Uniformity. — A tleece is uiiiforni in fineness when all the fibers 
are about the same in diameter. It is practically impossible to get 
absolute uniformity in this respect throughout the fleece and it is 
not expected. The wool on the hips seldom equals that on the 
shoulder in fineness, but the variation in the wool grown on these 
two regions of the body is much less in some individuals than 
in others, and when this is the case, the fleece as a whole is much 
more nearly uniform in quality. 

Strength of Fiber. — Wool is regarded as strong when individual 
fibers do not have a weak place somewhere in their length. These 
weak places are due largely to periods of sickness and undernourish- 




FlG. 197. — Kemp, structureless like fibers that are brittle and do not take the color 
dyes. A, longitudinal section, B, cross-section, compare with Fig. 24. (From "Structure 
the Wool Fiber," Bowman. Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.) 

ment, or to abrupt changes from dry to green feed, or vice versa, 
while the sheep is growing the wool. Hence, strength of fiber is 
a factor which depends more or less upon good feeding and shep- 
herding; and the kind of care necessary to produce a good crop 
of lambs is the best for growing wool. Tender wools, especially 
if they are two and one-half inches or more in lengtli, sell for less 
than wools of similar length and finish because they break in the 
process of combing and must be used as short wools. 

It is often possible to see the weak or tender place or to deter- 
mine its location by pulling on a lock of wool and noting where 
it breaks. Such a test is only an approximation of wliether the 



316 



THE WOOL CROP 



wool is too weak at its teiiderest point to stand the strain of 
combing in the process of manufacture. Strong, well-nourished 
wool, upon being released from pressure, springs back to its natural 
bulk. It thus displays life or loftiness, a very desirable character- 
istic. Another way to determine the strength and life of wool is 
to twist a number of fibers into a cord and then note the sound 
this cord gives off when it is drawn tight and touched much as 
one would touch the strings of a violin when tuning it. If the 
sound is somewhat like a metallic ring instead of a dull thud. 




Fig. 19S. — Well-grown wool, even in strength as indicated by the waves or crimp? of even 
length from the bottom to the top. (U. S. D. A. Bulletin 20(i.) 

one may be sure that the wool is sound and strong (Figs. 198 
and 199). 

Condition, which depends on the amount of yolk and foreign 
matter in wool, is a very important factor in determining its value. 
If the amounts are excessive, the shrinkage in weight from scouring 
is great and hence such wools are worth less in the unscoured 
state than lighter shrinking wools. A certain amount of " free- 
flowing " yolk is necessary to keep the wool fibers in good condition. 



CLEANLINESS 



317 



hut there should be no justification for breeding excessive quanti- 
ties of it merely for the sake of increasing the weight of the fleeee. 
Cleanliness. — Dirt, sand, burs, straw, and chaff in wool not only 
decrease its scoured yield, but also affect its value. It is impossible 
completely to scour out burs, straw, and chaff, and if the wool con- 
taining them is to be made clean it must be treated with a weak 
solution of sulphuric acid and heated, a process known as car- 
bonizing and one which is likely to weaken the wool. The con- 
ditions under which the sheep must be kept may make it impossible 




Fig. 199. — Tender wool, showing break caused by disease or improper nourishment of the 
animal on which the wool was grown. (U. S. D. A. Bulletin 206.) 

to keep out dirt and sand ; on some of the ranges in the western 
parts of the United States, it is not altogether possible to keep 
out burs, but on farms the presence of chaff, straw, and burs in 
wool is largely the grower's fault. Racks should be used that will 
not let chaff fall into the wool on top of the neck and shoulders 
and the flock should not be allowed to feed continually at stacks 
of straw. 

Branding sheep with insoluble paint is very detrimental to 
the condition of wool because the paint cannot be scoured out. 



318 THE WOOL CROP 

The only way to get rid of it is to clip it off, an expensive process 
because it must be done with hand labor (Fig. 200). 

Classes of Wool. — Wool is classed either as combing or cloth- 
ing. Combing wools are used in worsted manufacturing where it 
is necessary to place the fibers parallel to each other in the yarn. 
In order to meet the combing requirements, the fibers should be 
strong and two and one-half inches or more in length. The 
broken, short, and tangled fibers are discarded as " noils " to be 
used in the manufacture of woolens. What is known as the French 
combs can make worsted yarn from wools somewhat shorter than 
two and one-half inches; nevertheless, length and evenness in 
strength of fiber remain important factors in estimating the value 
of wool. 

Clothing wools are shorter than combing wools. They are 
used in the making of woolens, felts, and fabrics of similar type. 
ISTo attempt is made to keep the fibers parallel; in fact, the more 
they can be mixed in every direction the better they serve the 
purpose desired. 

Combing avooIs are worth from two to six cents per scoured 
pound more than clothing wools. On this account it is generally 
advisable to attempt to grow combing wool, but it is not always 
possible to secure the length and strength of fiber necessary to 
put wool into this class. This is especially true of wools from 
flocks where Merino blood predominates, and unless care is used 
in selecting breeding stock with wool having adequate length of 
fiber a considerable percentage of the fleeces in flocks where Down 
blood predominates (Oxford Down excepted) will be classed as 
clothing. Age is another factor which influences the class of 
wool that may be produced, for old sheep past their prime of life 
do not grow as much length of fiber as do young sheep of similar 
breeding. 

Coarse, kempy, poorly-bred wool is classed as carpet wool. 
It is not produced except in very small quantities in regions where 
improved methods of breeding and feeding are followed. 

Grades of Wool. — The wool that comes under each class is 
divided into various grades according to fineness. Trade journals 
giving reports of wool sales on the large markets contain a maze 
of quotations arranged so as to bewilder rather than to enlighten 
persons not thoroughly familiar with the wool trade. But when 



GRADES OF WOOL 319 

reduced to simplest terms, these quotations indicate the elapses 
and grades of wool to be as follows : - 

Classifications and Grades of Wools Produced by Flocks in the 
Eastern, Middle Western, and Southern Parts of the United 

States. — 

Comhing Wools 
Delaine, the finest combing wool; sometimes quoted as fine Delaine and 

medium Delaine. 
Half-blood. 
Three-eighths-blood. 
Quarter-blood. 
Low quarter-blood. 
Braid, the coarsest combing wool. 



Clothing ^Yools 
XX and X, washed or fine unwashed ; the XX and X are used almost 
exclusively to refer to wool from sheep tiiat were washed before shearing. 
Half-blood clothing. 
Three-eighths-blood clothing. 
Quarter-blood clotliing. 

At one time these last three terms were supposed to refer to wool from 
sheep of half, three-eighths, and one-quarter blood IMerino but they have 
no such significance now. 



Classifications and Grades of Wools Produced on the Ranges 
of the West and South westerti Parts of the United States.' — 



>• L'sually one grade. 



Comhing Wools 
Fine staple 
Fine medium staple 
Half-blood staple. 
Tliree-eighths-blood staple. 

Low quarter-blood staple f 
Coarse, common, low, or braid. 

" Staple" as applied to wools coming in the above classification refers 
to combing wools. 



Quarter-blood staple . 

Often one grade 



See U. S. Agr. lUilletin No 2()(; by F. R Marshall and L. L Heller. 



320 THE WOOL CROP 

Clothing Wools 
Fine clothing. 
Fine medium clothing. 
Half-blood clothing. 
Three-eighths-blood clothing. 
Quarter-blood clothing, or 
Short quarter blood. 

Practically all the wool of these last two grades is of combing length. 

Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, and Wash- 
ington wools are called "territory wools " in distinction from the 
clips from Texas, California, Oregon, New Mexico, and Arizona. 
Quotations are often given for the wools from different states. 
While these wools undouhtedly differ somewhat, it is almost impos- 
sible to tell in general descriptive terms what the differences are, 
and to be able further to subdivide the classifications given above 
requires an expert knowledge of the whole wool trade. 

United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 206 gives 
the following description of how the quality of foreign wools is 
often designated by the counts or number of hanks to the pound. 

" The coarser wools are represented by the lower counts, as 
IS's, 24's, 36's, etc., and the finer ones as 64's, 70's, 80's, etc. 
These numbers or counts represent the hanks per pound of top 
into which the wool is supposedly capable of being spun, each hank 
representing 560 yards. Thus, wool of 50's quality should spin 
50 X 5G0 yards per pound to top, if spun to the limit. This classifi- 
cation is based on the worsted system of manufacture. 

" Foreign Wool (Hasses and Corresponding Counts for American (Irodc 

American grades. Foreign classea- Counts often 

top-maker's spun to in 

quality. America. 

Fine 60's-70's 50's-60's 

Half-blood 5G's-60's 40'8 

Three-eighths-blood 50's-56's 36'8 

(^lartei-blood 4G's-50's 32's 

Low quarter-blood 40's-46's 20's 

Low, coarse, common, or braid .']r)'s-40's IC's 

" As a matter of fact the top-maker's quality does not actually 
represent the counts to which the wool can be spun. The lower 



GRADES OF WOOL 321 

grades will uot spin up to their number, while the finer ones will 
spin much higher than their designated numbers. Some fine Ameri- 
can wools have been spun to 200 counts for exhibition purposes. 
Short wool will not spin as high as similar wools of greater lengtli, 
hence this factor also influences the counts to which the wool 
will spin. 

" Another fact worthy of mention is that the wools are rarely 
spun to their limit ; that is, to as fine a yarn as is possible to spin. 
Wool can be spun several counts higher in England than it can 
in America. This is due to the fact that the air is moister there 
and that the labor of the mills is more capable than in the United 
States. This does not imply that American fabrics are inferior 
to imported, as a better cloth results if the wool is not so 
highly spun," 

The following interesting ta])ulation on the grades of wool 
from the difl'erent breeds of sheep is taken from United States 
Department of Agriculture Bulletin 206. It is made clear in the 
bulletin, however, that it is imposible to grade wool solely on the 
basis of the breeding of tlie sheep, and that in the mutton breeds 
particularly there are wide variations within a breed and even 
within flocks. 

Breed Orade of wool produced 

Merino (ea.stern states) . . . Delaine, XX, X, or fine unwashed, etc. 

Merino (range states) Fine and fine medium staple or clothing. 

Rambouillet Fine and fine medium staple or clothing and a 

small amount of half-blood. 

Southdown Half and three-eighths blood (chiefly three- 
eighths combing or clothing, chiefly clothing). 

Shropshire Mainly tliree-eighths-blood, combing or clothing. 

Some quarter-blood. 

Hampshire Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or 

clothing. 

Dorset Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or 

clothing. 

Suffolk Three-eighths-blood combing and clothing. 

Cheviot Quarter-blood combing. 

Oxford Quarter and low quarter-blood combing. 

21 



322 THE WOOL CROP 

Corriedale Tliree-eighths-blood combing. 

Cotswold ^ 

Lincoln V Low quarter-blood combing or braid. 

Leicester I 

Crossbred: Long wool on 

Merino or Rambouillet. Half-blood, tliree-eigliths-blood, and quarter- 

^^ 1, J ou 1 ■ blood combing. 

Crossbred : Shropshire or " 

Hampshire on Merino 

or Rambouillet Half-blood and three-eighths-blood combing or 

clothing. 

Shearing. — To a limited extent, the condition of the wool de- 
pends upon the time when the shearing is done. It is not always 
possible to shear at the time when the wool is in condition to 
most nearly suit market requirements. Oftentimes in the western 
part of the United States, the shearing must be done either be- 
fore the sheep are started from the winter range or while they 
are being moved from the winter feeding grounds to the spring 
or summer range. If this were not done the sheep would get 
so far away from railway lines that the cost of hauling the wool 
would be greatly increased. Besides this, various other factors are 
involved in determining the time when the shearing shall be done. 

It is different, liowever, in regions where farm flocks are kept, 
and if good shelter is available, it is possible to shear more nearly 
at the time when the wool is in best condition for being removed'. 
The usual time for shearing in the middle western and eastern 
parts of the United States is from the middle of April to the 
middle of May, after the cold weather is over and there have been 
a few d'ays a little too wann for the comfort of unshorn sheep. 
On the whole, this is a good time to shear, as tlie oil has risen 
in the wool in sufficient quantity to make it " full of life " and 
the shearing easy. If shearing is deferred too long the wool be- 
comes dead and lifeless. As a rule the wool from breeding ewes 
would be in somewhat better condition if they were shorn before 
they lamb because the feverish condition frequently resulting from 
lambing often causes them to lose some of their wool. Moreover 
the wool that is grown while they are expending so much energy 
in the production of milk is likely to be tender. 

With early shearing there will be fewer dung tags if it is done 
before the sheep are turned out to pasture. The extreme succu- 
lence of the fresh young grass causes the feces to soften and collect 



PLACES FOR SHEARING 323 

around the rear parts, and if the stained wool is not trimmed off 
when the feces first start to collect, a great mass will accumulate 
and greatly damage the wool. If the weather should be warm, 
the dung will also attract flies and the sheep will be attacked by 
maggots. 

There are some objections to shearing early, one of which is 
that the weight of fleece is considerably lighter than it would 1)C 
later on because there has not been enougli warm weather to cause 
the yolk to rise in large quantity. Hammond, of the Ohio Station, 
has experimented on this point and his conclusion printed in 
Ohio Station Bulletin 29^1: is as follows : " Washed sheep shorn 
April 12 produced" more grease wool than did washed sheep shorn 
June 1, while unwashed sheep shorn April 12 produced less grease 
wool than did unwashed slifiep shorn June 1." This indicates 
that between these two dates there was an increase in weight of 
fleece due to the accumulation of yolk or other foreign matter 
in the wool. 

In feeding a lot of western lambs, the writer ^ sheared half of 
them March 1 and the other half May 25. The late shorn fleeces 
contained a much greater amount of yolk and they averaged 2.6 
pounds more in weight than the early-shorn fleeces. In this case 
the dift'erence in weight was due to the difl^erence both in the 
amount of yolk and in the actual amount of wool. From Ham- 
mond's conclusion, however, it is clear that there would be no 
advantage in securing the greater weight of fleece from late 
shearing if wool were purchased strictly on the scoured basis. With 
small lots l)ut very little discrimination is made in this respect 
unless the wool is excessively heavy in amount of yolk. But, even 
if wool were purchased on the scourCd basis, it would not always 
pay to shear early, for there are places where the spring season 
is so variable that shelter will not adequately protect the health of 
shorn sheep. Sudden changes from warm to cold, windy weather 
may cause colds in the worst form, and when this happens, fatalities 
are almost sure to occur. 

Places for Shearing. — Where large bands of sheep are kept, as 
in the western part of the United States, sheds are built solely for 
the purpose of shearing, but where small flocks are kept the shear- 
ing quarters are usually of a temporary nature. In arranging a 

» 111. Sta. Bull. 167. 



324 THE WOOL CROP 

place, every precaution should be taken to keep the wool clean. 
While the fleece is being removed the sheep should be placed on 
a smooth board platform about ten feet square; the sheep awaiting 
shearing should be penned where they will not drag manure and 
litter with them as they are brought to the shearing place. 

Requirements for Good Shearing. — A good job of shearing 
consists in cutting the wool oft* smoothly close to the body. 

The power machine will cut closer than the hand shears, but 
satisfactory work may be done with the latter if the operator is 
careful and possesses some skill. It is the tend'ency of the unskilled 
shearer, whether using the machine or hand shears, to fail to 
cut close to the sheep's body. For example, the shearer may start 
to cut close to the body, but in advancing the shears he cannot 
follow the shape of the animal, and hence some of the wool is cut 
from a half to an inch away from the skin. He can, and usually 
does, back up and cut close where he failed in his first attempt. 
This makes what is known as second cuts. Because they are so 
short they are of low value for manufacturing purposes. It is 
also obvious that the evil of making second cuts makes the fibers 
in the main body of the fleece shorter and uneven in length, and 
therefore less desirable. 

In doing good shearing it is also necessary to get the fleece off 
without getting it torn apart. After setting a sheep on its rump, 
there is a knack of holding it so that it will not kick and struggle 
violently. Its body should be tilted' back towards the knees of 
the operator so that its hind legs cannot get sufficient contact with 
the floor to make effective resistance. It is the adjustment of this 
position that is equivalent to the knack of holding. 

Power shearing machines are gradually replacing the hand 
shears. The power machine does smoother work, makes fewer 
second cuts, and does not cut the skin of the sheep so badly. 
The amateur shearer can do much better with the power machine. 
In various places in the western part of the United States, the 
hand shears are still used because the power machine cuts so close 
that the sheep will l)lister if it turns hot or they will suffer if it turns 
cold. If thick combs are used, however, it is not necessary to cut 
extremely close with the power machine. 

Tying the Fleece. — Several things must be done to make a 
good job of tying the fleece. First, in order to- make an honest 
package, all tag lots must he removed whether they be of dung. 



TYING TWINE 



325 



or of grease and dirt. The tags have about one-third the value 
of clean wool. Second, the fleece should be carefully rolled up 
by hand with no ends and stray locks protruding and with the 
flesh side out. This greatly adds to the appearance of the fleece. 
It also prevents mixing the wool in diiferent fleeces. Third, the 
fleece should be tied ^vith a hard glazed twine, not larger than 
one-eighth inch in diameter. Special care should be taken to make 
a firm hard knot that will not slip (Fig. 201). 

Tying Twine."* — " The use of wrong kinds of tying twine has 
caused the manufacturer more trouble than any other one thing, 
witli the wools marketed from the farms of the central and eastern 



Fig. 200. 



Fig. 201. 




Fig. 200. — Insoluble paint in scoured wool due to paint that was used in branding 
the live sheep. 

Fig. 20i. — A fleece properly tied, the flesh side outward, no loose locks straggling, the 
whole fleece flufly or soft in appearance. (From Illinois Station Circular 101.) 

United States. A hard, glazed twine should be used in order to 
avoid getting any of its fiber mixed with the wool. In recent 
years paper wool twine has been introduced which is entirely 
satisfactory to the manufacturer. Rough, loosely woven twine 
made of vegetable fiber is not desiral)le because some of the fiber 
gets into the wool. It is impossible to remove it. It will not 
take the dyes used in coloring wool and it is detrimental to tlie 
strength and finish of the cloth. The ^only way to get rid of 
it is to pick it out of the finished cloth, which is an expensive 
process. Sisal twine is the most objectionable of all employed for 
tying wool. The mills have objected to it so strenuously that its 
use is being largely discontinued. In no event should it be used; 
better not tie at all than use it. There have been placed on the 
♦111. Sta. Circ. 161. 



326 



THE WOOL CROP 



market jute products, called wool twine, wliicli are not at all 
satisfactory. They are so loose and rough that many of the fibers 
cling to the wool and cause defects in the goods. Undoubtedly 
the wool trade the world over will institute a war against this 
type of twine. These so-called wool twines are also unnecessarily 
heavy. The best wool buyers object to excessive size and length 
of string. A well-known wool house in the middle west informed 
the writer that they had removed more than one pound of twine 
from a single fleece. The use of so much cheap stuff amounts to 

unfair packing. It is not 
necessary to wrap the string 
more than three times around 
the Heece — twice is usually 
sufficient — and the size of the 
string should be no greater 
than needed to give it the 
strength to stand the strain 
of drawing it in tightly on the 
wool for the purpose of tying. 
As stated above, it should not 
be more than one-eighth inch 
in diameter. India three-ply 
size No. 4% is a type suitable 
for tying wool; so are the 
paper wool twines. Some of 
the latter, however, are stifl', 
and therefore ditlicult to tie in 
a firm,, hard knot that will not slip and release the wool. In 
selecting from them care should be taken to secure a kind that is 
soft and pliahle (Fig. 203). 

" Packing and Storing. — When packing, the fleeces of ewes, 
lambs, rams, and wethers should be packed separately. In small 
flocks it is hardly advisable to pack them in separate bags, but 
they can be separated in the bag by sheets of stiff, strong paper 
so that they can be easily sorted at the market. A bag containing 
a certain kind or kinds of wool should be marked so that its con- 
tents are known. Tags and wool from dead sheep should be 
packed separately. 




hHi. 202, — Wool twine. A, taken from a 
fleece and showing the use of an excessive quan- 
tity. B, showing the proper kinid and quantity 
to use in tying a fleece. (From lUinois Sta- 
tion Circular 161.) 



GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE WOOL TRADE 327 

" lUaek or gray ilceees should not be allowed to come in contact 
with white fleeces; hurry fleeces should be packed to themselves 
(Fig. 203). 

"If the wool is not sold immediately after shearing, it should 
he 'stored in a clean, dry })lace. Jt should not be left on the 
bare ground even though it is phiced in bags. ■ It is best to store 
and market wool in bags, as it is the more likely to be kept clean. 
The l)ags should be closely woven, so tliat they will eirectivcly keej) 
out dust and dirt. They should also be of a type that will not shed 
particles of fiber into the wool. The loosely woven jute bags com- 
monly used, are satisfactory in neither particular.'' 








Fig. 'MS. — Wrong method of packing wool. Vafi<ius grades and colors varying from 'J to 
24 cents per pound in value packed in the same bag. 



Marketing Wool. — The claim is made that there is no open 
market for wool in the United States. For this reason it is difficult 
for the grower to know what his wool is worth. An open market 
woiild be a great help to the grower, but without a knowledge of 
a))Out liow much his wool would shrink in scouring, he would 
still be more or less in the dark. Owners of small clijjs arc, as a 
rule, at great disadvantage in selling, for they cannot get in 
touch with agencies whose chief business consists in handling wool. 
With the development of more interest in farm flocks, conditions 
for selling small clips will undoubtedly improve. 

Glossary of Terms Used in the Wool Trade. — Bulletin 206, 
Ignited States Department of iVgriculture, gives the following 
glossary of terms used in the wool trade : 

Blacl' Wool. — Includes any wool that is not white. 

Braid Wool. — Grade name, and synonym for luster wools. 

Brilrli Wool. — Wool from the lower tliighs of the sheep; usually 
the coarsest on the body. 



328 THE WOOL CROP 

Carbonized Wool. — That which has been treated with a solution 
of aluminum chlorid or sulfuric acid to remove vegetable matter. 
Carbonizing is rarely practiced with worsted wools. 

Cardiyig. — Consists of opening the wool staples, separating to 
a certain extent the fibers, and condensing and delivering the 
opened wool in a continuous strand or sliver. 

Carpet Wool. — Low, coarse wool used in the manufacture of car- 
pets. There is very little produced in the United States. 

Combing. — An operation in worsted manufacture which 
straightens the fibers and separates the short, weak, and tangled 
fibers known as noils from the continuous strand of long parallel 
fibers known as top. 

Come-back. — In America this refers to a wool fine in quality 
and having more length than would ordinarily be expected. In 
Australia it is the result of breeding crossbreds back toward pure 
Merinos, one of the parents being a pure Merino. 

Condition. — Eefers to the degree of oil in grease wool. It 
largely regulates the price. In scoured wool it is used to indicate 
the degree of moisture. 

Cotted Fleeces. — A cotted fleece is one in which the fibers 
are matted or tangled. The cause may be ill health of the sheep 
or the absence of the proper amounts of yolk or grease in the wool. 

Cow Tail. — A very coarse fleece, more like hair than wool. 

Crimp. — The natural waviness of wool fiber. Uniformity of 
crimp indicates superior wool. 

Crossbred Wools. — In the United States the term generally 
refers to wool from a long-wool and fine-wool cross. 

Defective. — Denotes that something will show disadvantageously 
after the wool is scoured. Fire, water, or moths may cause defec- 
tive wools. California hurry wool is quoted as defective. 

Delaine Wool. — Delaine originally referred to a fine type of 
women's dress goods. Delaine wools are fine combing or worsted 
wools, from Ohio and vicinity, but not necessarily from the 
Delaine Merino. 

Fall Wool. — Wool shorn in the fall where shearing is practiced 
twice a year, as in California and Texas. The fall wool is usually 
dirtier than the spring clip. It represents from four to six 
months' growth. 

Filling (Weft). — Threads that run crosswise and' fill in betweeii 
the warp. 



GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE WOOL TRADE 329 

Fribs. — Short and dirty locks of small size. Dungy bits of wool. 

Frowzy Wool. — A lifeless appearing wool with the fibers lying 
more or less topsyturvy. The opposite of lofty wool. 

Grease Wool. — Wool as it comes from the sheep with the grease 
still in it. 

Hogget Wool. — English term for the first wool from a sheep. 

Kemp. — Not a dead hair, but an abnormal fiber made up 
entirely of horny material, such as is on the outside of ordinary 
wool fiber. It will not dye as well as the ordinary fiber and does 
not possess spinning qualities. 

Line Fleeces. — Those midway between two grades as to quality 
or length. 

Lofty Wool. — Open wool, full of life. Si)rings l)aek into normal 
position after being crushed in the nand. 

Luster Wool. — -That from Tjincoln, Tjoicester, and (_^3tswold 
sheep. It is known as luster wool because the coarse fibers reflect 
the light. 

Modock. — Wool from range sheep that have been fed and 
sheared in the farm states. The wool has qualities of both regions 

Noil. — A by-product of worsted manufacture consisting of 
short and tangled fibers. It is used! in the manufacture of woolens. 

Off Sorts. — The by-products of sorting. In fine staple or any 
other grade there are certain quantities of short, coarse, stained, 
and colored wools. These are the off sorts. 

ricMocTc IFooZ.^Formerly a grade above XXX. Picklock was 
the product of Silesian Merino blood. There is no American 
nuirket grade of that name at present; a little of this quality of 
wool is produced in West Virginia. 

Pulled Wool. — Wool taken from the skin of a slaughtered 
sheep's pelt by slipping, sweating, or the use of depilatory. 

Quality. — The diameter of the wool. It largely determines the 
spinning quality. 

Bun-out Fleece. — One that is not uniform but much coarser on 
the Britch than elsewhere. It may be kempy. 

Shafty Wool. — Wool of good' length and spinning qualities. 

Shearlings. — Short wool pulled from skins of sheep shorn be- 
fore slaughtering. Also English term for yearling sheep. 

Shivy Wool. — A somewhat broad term. It refers to the pres- 
ence of vegetable matter in the wool, 



330 THE WOOL CROP 

Shoddy. — Wool that has been previously used for manufacturing 
purposes, torn apart, and made ready to use again. 

Skirting. — Skirting fleeces consists in removing the pieces and 
the low-quality wool of the britch from the ed'ge of the fleece. 

Spring Wool. — Six to eight months' growth; shorn in the 
spring where sheep are shorn twice a year. 

Stained Wool. — That which is discolored by urine, dung, etc. 

Staple. — (a) A lock or bunch of wool as it exists in the fleece. 
(&) Western combing wool. 

Stubble Shearing. — Shearing some distance from the skin, 
leaving a "stubble." 

Suint. — Excretions from sweat glands deposited in the wool. 

Sweating Sheds. — Sheds in which sheep are " sweated " before 
shearing. The purpose is to raise the yolk and make shearing 
easier. 

Tags. — Large dungy locks. 

Territory Wools. — Territory wools are in general those that 
come from the territory west of tiie Missouri Eiver. 

Tippy Wool. — Wool in which the tip or weather end of the 
fiber is more or less incrusted. 

Top. — A continuous untwisted strand of the longer wool fibers 
straightened by combing. After drawing and spinning it becomes 
worsted yarn. 

Top-maker's Qualities or Counts. — Top-maker's qualities or 
counts are the numbers used in designating the quality of certain 
foreign wools. They range from 13's upward. The numl)ers are 
supposed to indicate the numl)er of lianks of yarn a i)ound of top 
will spin to. Each hank represents 5 GO yards. 

Tub Washed. — Wool that has been washed after having been 
sheared. Very rare in America; was formerly practiced in 
Kentucky. 

Virgin Wool. — Wool that has not previously been used in 
manufacturing. 

Warp. — The threads that run lengthwise in cloth. 

Washed Wools. — Those from wliich the suint has l)een removed 
by washing the sheep before shearing. 

Wether. — In English wools it refers to wool otlier than the 
first clip from the sheep. In sheep, a castrated male. 

Yolk. — The fatty grease deposited upon the wool fibers from the 
oil glands. 



QUESTIONS 331 

QUESTIONS 

1. Review Chapter V and tell how the quality of wool is determined. 

2. Why is excessive yolk objectionable in wool? Burs? Chall? 

3. What kinds of twine should be used in tying wool? 

4. What is kemp? Is it desirable in wool? 

5. Wliat is necessary in order to grow strong wool? 

G. Of what advantage is uniformity of breeding in growing wool? 

7. What is clothing wool? Combing wool? IIow is each used? 

8. Give ax'goinients for and against early shearing. 



PART V 

SHEEP FEEDING 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

HISTORY OF SHEEP FEEDING IN THE UNITED 

STATES 

Sheep Feeding Defined. — The following discussion of sheep 
feeding- deals with the feeding of western sheep and lambs on farms 
and in feed lots. Although it is taken for granted that in all cases 
the animals involved in the feeding process are to be purchased by 
the feeder and that they are to be western sheep and lambs, much of 
the discussion also applies to cases in which owners fatten lambs of 
their own raising in autumn and winter. 

Origin of Sheep Feeding. — It is only since about 1890 that the 
]iractice of fattening western sheep and lambs has developed and 
l)ecome widespread. This practice had its origin around the large 
flour mills of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and other cities in the North- 
west. Previous to 1890 the screenings or waste from these large 
mills was looked upon as useless material and each year thousands of 
tons were dumped into the streams. 

In 1892 William Wyman, of Hamline, Minnesota, upon conceiv- 
ing the idea of using the waste from the large flour mills for fin- 
ishing western sheep, constructed a feeding yard midway between 
Minneapolis and St. Paul. His venture was a success, and his 
demonstration encouraged others to take up the business of sheep 
feeding. Immense yards, each accommodating several thousand 
sheep, were built around Minneapolis, St. Paul, Chicago and other 
cities where large flour mills were located. 

The common practice was to fill the yards with sheep and lambs 
from Montana, Oregon, Wyoming, Idaho, and other western states 
early in October, have tbem ready for the market about midwinter, 
and then fill the yards again. The second crop was usually shorn 
before time for marketing, which was near the first of June. 

For a few years after the practice of fattening sheep and lambs 
on screenings began, both the animals and feed Avere obtained for a 
small outlay of capital. Owners in the West, on account of not hav- 
ing enough feed to fatten their surplus sheep and lambs, were glad 
to dispose of them at very moderate prices, and, of course, the 

335 



336 HISTORY OF SHEEP FEEDING IN UNITED STATES 

screenings, being a waste prodiu't, were very cheap. Screenings-fed 
sheep and lambs soon became very popuhir with the packers and 
commanded good prices. The result was that the business of sheep 
and lamb feeding netted large profits. 

The Day of the Large Operators. — The men who built large 
yards and fed great numbers of sheep were known as the large 
operators. Most of them were located near the cities which had 
large flour mills, but some established themselves in Kansas and 
Nebraska, where corn and hay were cheap. Their business was 
speculative in nature, and it was easy to determine whether or not 
profits were made. So long as both feeds and feeder animals were 
cheap and there was a margin of two dollars or more per hundred- 
weight between the purchase and sale price of the sheep the business 
could not help being profitable. Its profitableness awakened the 
interest of people not only in the feeding of sheep, but also in 
screenings, the feed that was being so successfully used in the process 
of fattening. As a result, the demand for feeders increased and 
prices for them advanced. Other uses were found for screenings, 
and they, too, advanced in price. Therefore it was not long before 
the large operators had to give close attention to their sheep feed- 
ing in order to make it profitable. Following these changes they 
could not make profits and, worse still, many failed financially. 

It is now more than a decade since the majority of the large 
operators around the great flour-making centers ceased operations. 
Occasionally a few attempt feeding in a large way at the accumu- 
lating centers which are located near the large markets on the rail- 
roads that lead in from the West. These extensive feeders may 
or may not use screenings. As a rule they are preferred, but the 
price placed on them may make it necessary to select some other 
feed. When prices for corn and hay drop considerably below the 
normal level in Kansas and Nebraska a little sheep feeding is done 
on the old-time plan. Colorado is the only place where large 
operators now 'feed regularly, and it is doubtful whether they will 
continue for many years more because the time has come when 
they cannot be fully assured of profits from the business (Fig. 204). 

From the foregoing statements it is evident that the day of the 
large operator in sheep feeding is practically over. There should 
1)6 no regret, for sheep feeding properly belongs to those who raise 
a part or all of the feed. 



THE DAY OF THE LARGE OPERATORS 



337 







p3 r; 
P 3 > 









C3 <1> 



03 









„T3 C. 
►H a, CO 



22 



338 HISTORY OF SHEEP FEEDING IN UNITED STATES 

Rise of Farmer Feeders. — Not long after the large operators 
started to feed sheep farmers saw opportunities for 2)rofits in the 
business. Within a short time they were able to demonstrate that 
they were in better position to engage in sheep feeding than were 
the large operators. Their advantages were these: First, they 
owned the land on which the feeding was done, while, as a rule, 
the large operators did not; second, they considered the manure a 
valuable item, while to the large operators it was often an incum- 
Ijrance. In fact, it was the need for manure which led certain 
farmers in Michigan to engage in sheep feeding. Their farms had 
been depleted in fertility by continued cropping with wheat and 
something had to be done to restore fertility. Profitable sheep feed- 
ing, with the attendant production of manure, caught the attention 
of these farmers and they began to engage in the business about 
1893, Anyone who travels through south central Michigan will be 
impressed by the number of large red barns that have been erected 
for the purpose of conserving all of the roughages grown on the farm, 
such as hay, straw, corn stover, and bean hulls, and for housing 
sheep and lambs to which the roughages are fed. Most of the con- 
centrates are shipped in. Thus more fertility is carried back to the 
land in the form of manure than was taken away from it in the form 
of roughages. The crops produced on the farms where the large red 
barns are located bear ample evidence that something has been done 
to restore fertility, and those acquainted with conditions unhesi- 
tatingly give the credit to the feeding of sheep. 

Since farmers own the land on which they do their feeding they 
have still another advantage over the large operator in that they 
produce a great deal of their own feed. In the early days, when 
screenings were ridiculously cheap, this was not such an advantage, 
but now that a market has been established for them, the man 
who grows all or a part of his feed near the base of his operations 
is in better position to feed than the man who is compelled to buy all 
of his feeds. 

Again, the landowner, particularly in the corn belt, usually has 
a great deal of growth on his land which he considers waste unless 
consumed by some such animal as the sheep. The utilization of 
this growth gives the farmer or landowner a tremendous advantage 
over the large operator, for whatever gain the sheep make from it 
is counted clear profit. With this and the other advantages enum- 
erated, it is clear that in time sheep feeding must be almost entirely 



QUESTIONS 339 

ill the hands of the farmer fedeers, or of those who feed on a 
similar basis. In fact, the great bulk of the sheep feeding of to-day 
is done by owners or operators of land who feed from a few hundred 
to a few thousand sheep and lambs in a season. 

QUESTIONS 

1. ^^'llen did the sheep- fooding' industry originate? 

2. Who first practiced tlie feeding of sheep on mill screenings? 

3. How did the large feeders operate? 

4. Why did the fanners become interested? 

5. In what ways do farmer feeders have advantage over tlie speculative 

feeders ? 



CHAPTER XXXVII 



MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP 



The sheep feeder should have a comprehensive knowledge of 
the classes of sheep sold on the open markets and of the require- 
ments for the grades within these classes. On these markets all 
sheep raised in the West are called western sheep ; those raised on the 
farms in the Middle West, East, and South are called native sheep. 
Native sheep are not classed as feeders because they are so often 
infested with parasites that they are disappointing in the feed lot 
after they have undergone the hardships incident to passing through 
a market. 

The classes and subclasses of sheep are as follows : 



Classes 



Mutton sheep (native and western sheep) 



Feeder sheep (western sheep) .. 



]?reeding sheep (native and western sheep) 



f^ubclasses 

\ Lambs 

i Yearlings 

\ Wethers 

I Ewes 

[ ]?ncks and stays 

Lambs 
Yearlings 
Wethers 
Ewes 

Ewes 
Bucks 



The three main classes are determined by the use to which the 
sheep are put. The mutton class includes all sheep sold for slaugh- 
ter ; the feeder class, all sheep sold for the purpose of being sent to 
farms and feeding establishments to be fattened ; and the breeding 
class, all sheep sent out to be used as breeding stock. 

Either the age or sex, or both, determine the subclass to which 
the animal belongs. Lambs include all sheep under twelve or four- 
teen months of age except those that are so forward in their develop- 
ment of body as to resemble mature sheep. If any of the temporary 

340 



GRADES 341 

teeth have been replaced by permanent teeth the animal would not be 
classed as a lamb. Lambs constitute about 75 per cent, of the sheep 
sold as mutton. They are preferred to older sheep because their 
meat is tender, free from strong flavor, and they yield cuts of con- 
venient size. 

Yearlings are castrated males and they are properly called 
yearling wethers. As a mutton product they are used as a substi- 
tute for lamb, and in order to serve this purpose they must bear 
considerable resemblance to lambs in form, quality, weight, con- 
dition and immaturity. They are identified by the two broad teeth 
in front of the lower jaw and by the epiphyseal cartilage, or " break 
joint." The presence of the latter is determined by grasping the 
foreleg between the forefinger and thumb and rubbing up and 
down just above the pastern joint, where a rather sharp prominence 
will be felt if the epiphyseal eartihige has not disapi)eared. 

By removing the forefoot at the epiphyseal cartilage a reddish 
indented surface is exposed which is quite different in appearance 
from the surface exposed when the foot is removed ut the regular 
articulating joint, us must be the case with mature sheep because 
the cartilage is knit or ossified. On this account the presence of 
the cartilage is important, for it furnishes evidence that the carcass 
is that of an immature animal. Yearling ewes are not classed as 
yearlings, because they mature earlier than yearling wethers and 
often fail to show the " break joint " soon after they pass out of the 
lamb class. 

Wethers are castrated males that are too mature in development 
of body or too inferior in quality to class as yearlings. In case a 
male is not castrated until it develops the coarseness of feature 
characteristic of a mature ram it is classed as a stag. Y^earlings 
and wethers form only a small part of the sheep that are sold for 
mutton. 

Ewes are females too far advanced in maturity to class as lambs ; 
the class includes all ages from yearlings up. 

Bucks and stags include entire males too mature to class as 
lambs and castrated males showing the coarseness of feature com- 
mon to mature rams. This class forms a very small part of the 
offerings on the market. 

Grades. — Each subclass, bucks and stags excepted, is divided 
into from three to five grades, the full list being prime, choice, good, 
medium, and common or culls. The term " prime " is replaced by 



342 MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP 

the term " fancy selected " in feeder and breeding classes. A prime 
animal represents the best and a common one the worst in a given 
class. In mutton yearlings the two lower grades are omitted be- 
cause yearlings corresponding to those grades are either classed as 
mutton wethers or yearlmg feeders. The term " fancy selected " 
is applied only to the best grade of lambs in the feeder class and to 
the best grade of ewes in the breeding class, and it is but seldom 
used m these classes. 

Grades of Mutton Sheep. — The grade to which a sheep in any 
of the subclasses of mutton sheep belongs is determined by its form, 
quality, condition, and weight. Of these factors, quality and con- 
dition are the most important, but any animal that is markedly 
deficient in any of the factors mentioned can not grade as prime. 

In all particulars except weight the following description of a 
prime mutton lamb, taken from Illinois Station Bulletin 139, serves 
fairly well as a description of prime animals in the other subclasses 
of mutton sheep : 

" It IS miderstood that when lambs are graded as prime they 
are the very best of the class that may generally be expected on the 
market. Prime lambs are taken largely for fancy city market, hotel, 
and restaurant trade. Such lambs are practically above criticism in 
quality, condition, and weight. They are usually secured by sorting 
the best out of a band. This is especially true of native lambs, 
wliere the offermgs in one shipnxent are likely to be very uneven. 

" Before a lamb is graded as prime it is determined by sight 
and touch that it possesses the form, quality, condition, and weight 
demanded by the dealer in high-class mutton. 

" Form. — The butcher demands the form that shows the most 
development in the loin, back and leg of mutton. He demands 
development in these regions because they are the parts from which 
the high-priced cuts are secured. The animal should show a great 
deal of depth and breadth and no tendency to be paunchy, for 
paunchiness adds to the percentage of waste in slaughtering. The 
prime lambs should present a general fullness and smoothness of 
outline, both of which attributes indicate thickness and evenness of 
flesh. There should be an absence of roughness, for the waste in 
the dressing of the rough, ungainly lamb is large in proportion to 
the carcass, and, furthermore, the appearance of the carcass of such 
a lamb fails in attractiveness when placed on exhibition in the 
market. It is generally conceded that form is enhanced if the body is 



QUALITY AND CONDITION 343 

supported by short legs. However, many prime Iambs have only 
moderately sliort legs. Very long legs detract J'rom the dressed 
yield and from the appearance of the carcass when displayed, and 
on this account lambs that are decidedly upstanding do not grade 
as prime. 

" Quality and Condition. — (1) General Quality. — The degree 
of development in quality is one of the most important factors in 
determining the value of fat lambs. General quality is indicated 
by a medium-sized, clean-cut head, ears of fine texture, fine but 
strong bone, a light pelt, and full, well-rounded outlines. All these 
attributes suggest a freedom from that degree of coarseness which 
adds to the waste in dressing, and from the unattractiveness which 
works against the value of the carcass. 

" Of the items of general quality enumerated, lightness of pelt 
is the most essential. By pelt is meant the skin and wool combined. 
With a light-weight pelt, ,the skin will be comparatively thin 
and free from folds or wrinkles, and the wool not very dense or 
oily. The only time when the heavier weight of pelt seems to be 
favored is in the spring, when both shorn and unshorn sheep and 
lambs are being marketed. During these months the difference in 
price between shorn and unshorn lambs varies from seventy-five 
cents to one dollar and twenty-five cents per hundredweight in 
favor of the unshorn lambs. The amount of difference depends on 
the condition of the wool market and the time in the season when 
the lambs are slauglitered. The difference usually becomes less as 
the hot weather approaches, because it is believed that the carcasses 
of unshorn lambs deteriorate in quality on account of the discom- 
fort the lambs suffer in hot weather from being left in their fleeces. 
It should be remembered, however, that this discrimination in favor 
of the heavier pelt holds only when shorn and unshorn sheep or 
lambs are compared. Of two lambs in the wool, the one with the 
lighter pelt is always preferred, provided they are equal in other 
respects. 

" The question is often asked why sheep or lambs with heavy 
pelts are discriminated against when they carry a greater weight of 
wool than those with light pelts. This question arises naturally 
because wool is worth a great deal more per pound than mutton, 
and it would seem that lambs with heavy fleeces should be credited 
with the greater amount of wool which they produce. In a large 
packing plant the slaughtering department usually delivers pelts 



344 MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP 

having wool at about the same stage of growth to the wool pullerj' 
department at a uniform price. Hence the department buying the 
kimbs does not discriminate in favor of those having heavy fleeces. 
If the buyer for the packer were required to base his bids upon the 
wool as well as the mutton yields his task would be greatly com- 
plicated because, in estimating the yield of wool, he would be 
obliged to determine how much of the pelt was wool and how much 
of it skin. Hence the packer instructs the buyer to be governed 
chiefly by the percentage of marketable meat which the lamb will 
yield and not by the combined product of mutton and wool. 

^'The weight of pelt may differ appreciably according to the 
amount of foreign material and moisture in the wool. Should lambs 
be very wet, buyers may refuse to bid on them until they become 
nearly dry; and if bids are made on lambs whose wool contains an 
unusual percentage of moisture, the buyer attempts to allow for it 
by the price he offers. Foreign material, such as mud, sand, or dung, 
may be lodged in the wool, and in such case the buyer protects him- 
self from loss by bidding less per pound for the animals than if their 
wool were clean. Such bids usually work against the owner, and 
hence it pays to market lambs in clean condition. 

" Occasionally the general quality of lambs may be developed 
to such a marked degree that they will sell as prime even though 
they are somewhat deficient in form. A notable example is the fat 
Mexican lamb. From the standpoint of form, the Mexicans are not 
especially attractive, since they have narrow, upstanding bodies and 
long necks, but they are unequalled in fineness of features and light- 
ness of pelt. Without their high development of general quality 
they would not receive favorable consideration from buyers, but 
because of it, when fat, they top the market. 

"(2) Quality of Flesh and Condition. — The terms 'quality' 
and ' condition ' are frequently used interchangeably on the market, 
chiefly because the quality of the flesh of an animal is largely de- 
pendent upon condition. By condition is meant degree of fatness. 
The reasons why a lamb should be fat are: (a) other things being 
equal, there will not be so high a percentage of offal as in the half- 
fat or the thin lamb; (h) the fat adds to the attractiveness of the 
carcass and thus makes it more inviting to the purchaser; (c) the 
comparatively fat carcass loses less in weight in the process of cool- 
ing out in the refrigerator and also in cooking; (d) some fat on 
the outside of Che lean meat and a considerable amount deposited 



WEIGHT 345 

through it adds to its pahvtability by making it more juicy and of 
better flavor. 

" Desirable quality of flesh is indicated by firmness along the 
back, at the loins ovei the sides and at the leg of mutton. ' Hard 
as a board ' is a favorite phrase with many sheepmen to describe a 
back having a desirable quality of flesh, but with this single idea 
in mind bareness or lack of flesh might be mistaken for firmness 
of flesh. While the flesh should have that firmness which would 
seem hard to an inexperienced man, it should have just enough 
springiness to yield slightly to the touch. 

" It rarely happens that lambs arc made too fat for the prime 
grade, but very often they fail to grade as prime because they are 
not fat enough. Because lambs arc finished for market before they 
have ceased growing, they do not have the tendency to lay on fat in 
large, soft bunches at the rump and in rolls at the girth, and hence 
it is difficult to carry them to the point of excessive fatness. The 
development of fat essential to the prime lamb is indicated by a thick 
dock, a full, mellow purse, thickness and smoothness on the back and 
over the ribs, fullness at the neck and a plump well-filled breast. 

*'■' By merely looking at a lamb in the wool, one can not tell its 
condition with exactness, and hence it is necessary to judge condi- 
tion by placing the hands on the animal. Experts rely upon placing 
the hand but once; for example, by spreading the hand so that the 
back and ribs will be touched by one stroke, or by grasping the loin, 
or by getting the thickness and fullness of the dock ; but none risk 
their judgment upon sight alone. A great deal is determined by 
the stroke that touches the back and ribs because it not only reveals 
the condition as evidenced by the degree of smoothness present, but 
also the amount and quality of the flesh by the thickness and firm- 
ness of it. This stroke also aids in determining the kind of pelt a 
lamb may have with respect to thickness of skin, density of wool, 
and ])resence of foreign material. 

" Weight. — Weight is a factor that varies somewhat with the 
different seasons of the year, but, in general, the lamb of prime 
quality and condition and weighing 80 pounds sells at the highest 
price. When spring lambs first appear on the market they weigh 
little more than (iO ])()unds; but if they have the quality and the 
finish they easily connnand top prices. During the summer months, 
when people are apt to eat less meat, consumers of mutton, as a rule, 
desire small cuts, and this gives, rise to a strong demand for lambs 



346 



MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP 



ranging in weight from. G5 to 70 pounds. There never is a time, 
however, when lamhs weighing 80 pounds will not sell as prime 
provided they are prime in form, quality, and condition. Occasion- 
ally native lambs showing the best form, quality, and condition, will 
sell as prime lahabs even though they reach 100 pounds in weight. 
Such cases are exceptional, and no one could expect to market 
lambs of this weight regularly and always have them grade as prime. 
" Quality and condition are of direct interest to the packer in 
that they influence the percentage of marketable meat secured, but 




Fig. 205. — Prime lambs, unifonu, shapely, showing quality fat and tree from wrinkles. 

Aveight is a factor regulated almost entirely by the consumer, who 
may be very exacting if prices are high. It is believed that in the 
combination of tenderness, juiciness, and flavor the flesh from the 
lighter lamb is not superior to that of the heavier lamb. But in 
making selections from the lighter carcass the average consumer 
feels more fully assured that he is getting lamb and not mutton, and 
the size of the cuts from the smaller carcass is more convenient 
for his use. 

" AAHiat has been said in the above discussion about the form, 
quality, and condition of the prime lamb is in the main true of any 
subclass of mutton sheep. Any animal that is markedly deficient in 
either form, quality, or condition will not meet the demnads of the 



THE COMMON GRADES 



347 



dealer in high-class mutton, and hence can not grade as prime " 
(Figs. 205-208). 

The Common Grades. — Animals in the common or cull grades 
are nearly always very deficient in condition, as shown by lack of 
covering over the back and ribs. Coarseness and overweight, as 
frequently occurs with ram lambs, may cause them to be graded as 
common lambs or culls. Wethers in medium to good condition, 
but having heavy pelts and coarse features, may be graded as com- 
mon. Advanced pregnancy in ewes as well as lack in condition or 
quality may contribute toward placing them in the common grade 
(Figs. 209-211). 




Fig. 206.— Prime yearlings, tidy and not much larger than lambs. 

The intermediate grades, choice, good, and medium, indicate 
various degrees of deficiency in condition, quality, form, and weight. 
Animals markedly deficient in either condition or quality rarely 
grade higher than medium, but bad form unless accompanied by 
paunchiness, is not so much discriminated against. Weight has a 
variable influence in determining the grade. When the supply of a 
certain class of sheep is not great enough to satisfy the demand it 
does not have much influence, but if there is a plentiful supply its 
influence is easily noticeable. 

The desirable weights for the prime grades in the various sub- 
classes of mutton sheep are lamibs, 55 to 85 pounds, according to 
the time of year; yearlings, 70 to 90 pounds; wethers, 95 to 110 
pounds, also 140 ])ounds ; and ewes, 90 to 140 pounds. 



348 



MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP 




FEEDER SHEEP 



349 



The dressing percentage of animals in the prime grades of un- 
slioni sheep ranges from i'rZ to 54 per cent. Very fat animals will 
dress out as much as GO per cent, of carcass to live weight, but 




Fio. 208.— Prime ewes. 










riQ. 209. — Common lambs. Thin in flesh, not docked and castrated. (From IllinoiB 

Station Bulletin 129.) 



when the dressed percentage is this high the mutton is too fat to be 
used economically. 

Feeder Sheep. — Condition or the amount of flesh is the one 
thing which determines whether or not sheep belong in the feeder 
class. When they are too thin to suit the needs of the packer they 



350 



MARIvET CLASSES OF SHEEP 



are classed as feeders, provided they are healthy western sheep and 
not extremely coarse and advanced in age. Occasionally a few 



FiQ. 210. 




Fig. 211. 

Fig. 210. — Common wethers. Thin in flesh, heavy pelts. (From Illinois Station 
Bulletin 129.) 

Fig. 211. — Common ewes. Very thin in flesh. (From Illinois Station Bulletin 129.) 

natives are taken out as feeders, but so rarely and in such small 
numbers that they can not be listed as belonging to the feeder class. 



CHOICE FEEDER LAMBS 



351 



Grades of Feeders. — ^I'he grade to which a feeder sheep heloiigs 
is determined by its form, quality, constitution, condition, and 
weight. In all particulars except weight the following description 
of a choice feeder lamb, taken from Illinois Station Bulletin 12d, 



'l^JL^-l 



FiQ. 212. — Choice feeder lambs thrifty and free from coarseness. 




Fio. 213. — Choice feeder lambs showing compactness and quality. 

serves as a description of choice animals in the other subclasses 
(Figs. 212 and 213) : 

" Choice Feeder Lambs. — C^hoice feeders, if properly managed, 
will develop into choice and prime mutton lambs. Of all the grades 
that generally come to the notice of buyers, this one is probably more 
uniform than any other. In order to get a fixed standard from 
which to make comparisons this grade is described in detail. 

" What the buyer expects of choice feeders is tlu; ability to finish 



352 MARKET CLASSES OF SHEEP 

into prime oi" clioiio imiltoii lauihs, ami lo |)ru(luce ij:,aiiis at eco- 
nomical figures. The select ion of sucli iamlis is based upon form, 
quality, constitution, condition, and weight. 

" Form in Feeder Lambs. — In general, the form should be 
deep, broad, well-knit, of medium length, and low-set. This con- 
formation indicates early maturity, good constitution, capacity for 
growth, and a likelihood of finishing into an attractive carcass with 
a relatively high 2)ercentage of valuable cuts. Yery leggy, gaunt, 
narrow, loosely-made laml)s usually fatten slowly and lack the 
ability to make economical gains or to reach choice mutton finish. 
The choice feeder should be of medium length rather than very 
long or very short. Great length is usually attended with general 
ungainliness and a tendency to finish slowly. Since lambs of this 
conformation are usually very long in the coupling they lack, when 
at their best, the compactness desired in the choice mutton lamb. 
On the other hand, the unusually short lamb as a rule behaves on 
feed as though it had been stunted. It is often fastidious in its 
eating; it frequently presents a paunchy appearance and improves 
but slightly during the feeding period. It has been said that choice 
feeders should be low-set, but only a comparatively small number 
of strong, western lambs have legs that would be termed short. In 
making selections and keeping the other requisites in mind, the less 
leggy type should be preferred. 

" Quality of Feeder Lambs. — Quality is a very imjiortant con- 
sideration in the selection of feeder lambs. It is characterized by a 
medium-sized, clean-cut head ; medium-sized ears ; bone that is free 
from coarseness at the joints; skin, thin and without folds or 
wrinkles. A smooth skin without folds or wrinkles and carrying- 
wool of moderate weight is the most important requirement of desir- 
able quality in feeder lambs. Lambs with heavy pelts are discrim- 
inated against because they do not, as a rule, gain so rapidly as lambs 
with smooth skins, and they never command top prices when re- 
turned to the market fat, because the excessive weight of pelt 
materially reduces the percentage of the dressed weight. 

" Constitution of Feeders. — The conformation which indicates 
a strong constitution is described above under form. A wide, deep 
chest, fullness in the heart-girth, and depth and l)readth of body 
indicate sufficient space for well-developed vital organs, which means 
a strong constitution. Another important point, which if not a 
part of constitution is closely akin to it, is thrift. The intelligent 



WEIGHT CONSIDERED IN FEEDERS 



353 



buyer of choice feeders rejects all lambs that appear in the least 
unthrifty, such as lame ones and those inclined to lag behind when 
the l)and is moving. 

"Condition. — While it is understood that no grade of feeder 
lambs is what we would call fat, choice lambs should be fairly full in 

Fig. 214. 




Fig. 214. — Common feeder lambs. Very thin, and uuthiifty in appearance. ^From 
Illinois Station Bulletin 129.) 

Fig. 215. — Common feeder yearlings. Very heavy pelts which are objectionable in any 
class of feeders. (From Illinois Station Bulletin 129.) 



their outlines and without any suggestion of emaciation. Such 
condition is of importance for two reasons: First, the exceedingly 
thin lamb usually does not finish in a normal feeding period; and, 
second, a lamb' of this description often fails to make gains as 
economically as those in higher condition. 

" Weight to be Considered in Feeders. — The question of 
23 



354 MARIvET CLASSES OF SHEEP 

weight should receive consideration. Choice feeder lambs range in 
weight from 55 to 62 pounds. Lambs weighing less than this are 
regarded as either too young or too much retarded in growth to grade 
as choice. It is expected of choice lambs that they will finish into 
the most desirable weights in a normal feeding period, which is from 
75 to 120 days, and hence the initial weight should not be much less 
than 55 pounds." 

In determining the proper form of a feeder sheep, it is not to 
be expected that the amount of depth and breadth in proportion 
to the length is to be as great as in the fat lamb, for high condition 
adds materially to these dimensions. 

Fancy selected feeder lambs (one grade higher than choice 
lambs) are usually above 60 pounds in weight and lacking only 
10 to 15 pounds to put them in prime condition for the mutton 
class. 

The Common Grades. — The following may cause feeder lambs 
to grade as common : Lack of thrift, light weight (35 to 45 pounds), 
extreme weight of pelt, and coarseness in features. Common feeder 
yearlings are so heavy in pelt and heavy in weight that they may be 
classed as wethers when fat. Common feeder wethers may be very 
thin, advanced in age, coarse and pelty. Common feeder ewes are 
very thin, and as a rule have defective teeth (Figs. 211 and 215). 

Weights for the various subclasses of feeders are as follows : 

Weights of Proper weight when returned 
choice grades to the market as 

of feeders mutton sheep 

Lambs iiS-G-i lbs. 80, lbs. 

Yearlings 05-70 lbs, 85-90 lbs. 

Wethers 80-90 lbs. 9.5-110 lbs. 

Ewes 70-80 lbs. 95-100 lbs. 

Breeding sheep were discussed in the chapter on establishing the 
commercial flock. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the important difference between mutton and feeder sheep? 

2. What are the most important factors in determining the grade of a 

mutton lamb? 

3. What does the market mean by pelt? 

4. Why are lambs preferred to older sheep? 

5. What are yearlings? 

0. How are they used in the mutton trade? 

7. What grade is applied to the best mutton lamb? The worst? 



A 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SHEEP AND LAMB 

FEEDING 

Sheep and Lamb Feeding Conducted in Autumn and 
Winter. — By far the greater part of sheep and lanih feeding is con- 
ducted in the autumn and winter. There are two reasons for this. 
One is that many persons are not prepared to feed except at this 
time of year, the other is that feeder sheep and lambs are not 
•shipped from the range to the markets in large numbers until the 
autumn months. 

Feeder sheep and lambs reach the markets in largest numbers in 
the autumn, because the moving of the sheep at this time from the 
summer range in the mountains to the winter range on the plains 
furnishes one of the best opportunities to dispose of surplus stock. 
Often it is absolutely necessary to dispose of part of the stock being 
moved out of the mountains on account of the winter range not 
being sufficient to maintain all of it. Of the number which owners 
are obliged to sell, a fair percentage is classed as feeders. 

As a rule the autumn and winter are the best seasons for farmers 
to feed sheep and lambs. At that time the general farm work does 
not require so much attention and feeding can be followed to an 
advantage l)ecause it furnishes a means for retaining the regular 
force of laborers on the farm. 

Types of Sheep and Lamb Feeding. — The Dry Lot. — Feed- 
ing altogether on harvested or stored feeds is commonly referred to 
as dry-lot feeding. It is practiced in various places in the West, in 
j\Iichigan, and to a certain extent, in Ohio and New York. In 
Michigan it is the connnon jn-actice to place the sheep or lambs in 
barns and keep them there continuously through the feeding period. 
In other places the plan is frequently modified by providing a run in 
an outside lot in addition to the shelter, and in the West, where the 
fall and winters are usually dry, the animals are kept entirely in 
open lots. 

As a rule, Michigan feeders produce the necessary roughage and 
store it in the barn where the feeding is to be done, but the greater 
part of the concentrates required are purchased. Just what con- 

355 



356 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING 

centrate is procured depends largely upon cost. Tons of salvage 
are used (salvage is damaged grain, such as corn and wheat taken 
from elevator fires), but corn of the better commercial grades is 
frequently shipped in. 

Those who feed entirely under shelter would pref'^r to finish two 
different bands of sheep or lambs each season. If possible, they 
would like to receive the first shipment soon enough in the fall to 
be able to get it to market early in me new year. Then the second 
sbipment, which is always sliorn before it leaves the barn, can come 
in any time after the first has been shipped. Of late years the 
scarcity of feeders has prevented many from feeding two bands in a 
season. Instead, they have purchased the one shipment rather late, 
fed them so as to produce a fair rate of gain, and have marketed 
them after shearing. It is not an uncommon practice for Michigan 
and other feeders east of Chicago, to buy the unfinished sheep and 
lambs from the stalk fields further west. These are very suitable 
for feeding late in winter and shearing before marketing. 

Feeding under shelter has several advantages which other 
methods lack. First, there is no waste of feed. Second, there is no 
waste of manure. The latter, though overlooked hitherto by many 
ieeders, surely will not be disregarded mucli longer. Third, adverse 
weather conditions are not so serious a matter where the feeding is 
done under shelter. Fourth, certain types of feeders, such as little, 
weak, cheap " peewee "' lambs can be handled, which could not be 
used at all under any other method. An attempt to feed them in 
the o])en would be an immense risk. 

The disadvantage, if any, of feeding under shelter lies in the 
cost of equi])ment. 

First Over Fields and Then Under Shelter. — This is a type of 
feeding practiced Ijy those who ha\e a great deal of land and wlio 
produce nearly or quite all of their feed. They have a great deal of 
feed left in the fields which either could not be harvested or which 
they do not see fit to harvest. By allowing the sheep to run on these 
fields, at least a part of this feed is consumed and the cost of finish- 
ing the animals is thereby lessened. When the weatlier turns bad 
the sheep or lambs are brought to the barns and finislied on the feeds 
stored for the purpose. 

Those who follow tliis method usually feed out but one sbipment 
of sheeji or lambs in a year. Generally they shij) hack to market 
rather early, but they may keep the animals on the fields until late 
and not market until after shearing time. 



SPECIALIZED PLANTS 



357 



Feeding Altogether in Fields. — This plan is becoming more 
and more widely prai'tieed, but wiien it consists solely in feeding in 
corn stalks, it is usually a failure. When sheep eat down corn in 
which rape or soybeans are grown economical gains and prime finish 
may be secured, or if good pasture can be utilized in connection with 
the corn, the feeding operation can be made successful (Fig. 316). 

In feeding altogether in the fields, the feeding period may be 
either short or long. A long period amounts really to a rather 



'-J^>.. 




Fig. 210. — tiheeping down corn. Rape, soybeans, tlie clovers, or pasture grasses form good 
supplements to use with the corn. 

extended period of stocking through the winter and a short fattening 
period in the spring. 

Specialized Plants. — The feeding stations or accumulating 
stations mentioned in the previous chapter, are to be classified 
under specialized plants. In such places all the feeds are pur- 
chased and the manure, instead of being hauled out on the land, is 
put through a drying and pulverizing process and sold as com- 
mercial fertilizer. Those who feed at the accumulating stations are 
persons who either are attempting to do business as did the old- 
time operator, or have started to feed at some other ]')oint and for 



358 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING 

some reason have been obliged to move. Feeders in the far West 
sometimes exhaust their supply of grain and then move up to the 
accumulating stations for finishing. 

There are also specialized plants quite different from the accumu- 
lating station, of which the plants located at pea canning factories 
are good examples. At the time the peas are canned, the pea hulls 
and vines are made into silage by a very simple and inexpensive 
process. No silo is needed, and all that is necessary is to stack them 
neatly and tramp them well. The silage is unusually palatable to 
sheep and lambs and when used with fattening concentrates and a 
little dry roughage produces an excellent market finish. 

Nature of the Business of Sheep Feeding. — Whoever under- 
takes to feed sheep and lambs should realize that there is a hazard 
in the business. In other words, both risk and chance are involved 
in it to a certain extent. Risk arises from the probability of losses 
during the feeding period and of low gains for the feed consumed. 
Chance arises from the probability of high prices for feeders and of 
low prices for fat sheep or lambs or vice versa. It is hardly fair, 
however, to call the businesss of sheep feeding purely speculative 
when conducted by those who follow it regularly 3'ear after year. 
But it is speculative when it is conducted by those who do not in- 
tend to follow it up regularly, and who engage in it only because 
they have an impression that the conditions surrounding it are such 
as to assure large profits irrespective of the lack of skill with which 
it is conducted. 

It has often been said that the success of the feeding operation 
depends largely upon l)uying well and selling well. By this is meant 
that the selling price per hundredweight should be considerably 
higher than the purchase price. Unless the market for feeders be 
unusually low, no one can be reasonably sure of a much higher 
market for fat sheep and lambs than for feeders. There are certain 
indications, however, as to the future of the market which should 
be studied. Some of these indications are as follows : 

First, the number of feeder sheep and lambs that are being sent 
to the country from the markets. If the supply of feeders seems to 
be small it is more than likely that prices will be high both for 
feeders and for fat sheep and lambs. Under such circumstances, 
one should exercise caution in buying, and he should be reasonably 
sure that the total supply of feeders is small before he makes his 
purchase. 



NATURE OF BUSINESS OF SHEEP FEEDING 359 

Second, the supply ol ieed in the regions where feeding is done. 
If there is a heavy supply of feed, prices are likely to be high for 
feeders and low for the linished animals. Whenever there is an 
abnormally large supply of feed inexperienced persons are inclined 
to take up feeding. As a rule they are wanting in discrimination, 
both in buying and in selling. They boost the prices for feeders 
and depress the prices for fat sheep and lambs. 

A large supply of feed does not necessarily indicate that one 
should not engage in feeding. But it does indicate the need of 
exercising care in buying and of planning to avoid the probable 
weak spots on the market. If there is a hungry demand for feeders 
to eat off a fall growth, it is probable that there will be a heavy run 
back to market late in the autumn or early in the winter. In such 
a season one should plan to market his animals late in the winter or 
during the spring months. 

Third, the supply of other meat animals. If there is a scarcity 
of cattle or of swine, one may be reasonably sure of a good market 
for sheep. This is not always a safe indication because some ab- 
normal situation may exist which causes such a heavy marketing 
of sheep as to be detrimental to prices. 

Fourth, the price of wool. Undoubtedly high prices for wool 
tend to stimulate the prices for fat sheep because the packer is 
anxious to handle the wool of the sheep sent to slaughter. If the 
prices of wool were low the prices offered for feeders would be some- 
what lower. 

Fifth, the general prosperity of the people. If the prosperity of 
the people is threatened, prices for sheep and lambs are likely to be 
on a low level. Owing to the flurry in Wall Street late in the 
autumn of 1907, the prices for mutton and lamb were low through- 
out the following winter. It has been said that mutton and lamb 
are for the tables of the rich, but adverse financial conditions in- 
dicate that they are also for the tables of the salaried and wage- 
earning classes. 

Sixth, the general level of meat prices. Meat can soar too much 
in price. After it reaches a certain point, people begin to refuse to 
buy and the result is a lowering of prices. The level of meat prices 
is a consideration only for the- very near future. That is, if one 
should be feeding a band of lambs that is just about ready to 
market, and should the market be growing stronger each week, 
attaining higher and higher levels, it is best not to be too optimistic 



360 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING 

as to the continuance of the rise, for so high a level may he reached 
that people will refuse to buy. 

Feeding a Fattening Process. — Before starting to feed sheep 
or lambs one should fully realize that the object of the feeding 
operation is to convert animals in thin flesh into a finished product 
for slaughter. It would seem that no one would entertain any other 
idea, but each year thousands of western sheep and laml)S are turned 
back to the large markets from corn-belt farms in unfinished con- 
dition. In fact, many of these sheep and lambs must be resold as 
feeders. Although many reasons can be given for this lack of finish, 
experience has shown that many feeders are not impressed as they 
should be by the importance of finish. They do not seem alive to 
the fact that in order to sell well, their offerings must be well 
fattened (Fig. 217). 

Equipment for Feeding. — Supply of feed. Any one who is 
contemplating the feeding of either sheep or lambs should make a 
careful study of how well he is equipped to engage in the work. First 
of all he should ascertain whether he has an adequate supply of the 
proper kind of feed, both grain and roughage, to make his animals 
fat. In case his supply of feed is not adequate he should know 
definitely whether he can purchase it at a price that will justify his 
using it in the feeding process. Lack of feed is one of the reasons 
often given for so many sheep and lambs returning to the market in 
unfinished condition. In the corn belt, particularly, too many per- 
sons attempt to feed when they know they do not have enough 
of the proper kind of roughage. Their supply is exhausted before 
their sheep or lambs are finished and since concentrates alone can 
not be used, the feeding operation is carried on at a loss. Attempts 
to fatten on grass and roughages alone are rarely profitable l)ecause 
in fall and winter the feeding of some concentrate feed is required 
to make sheep or lambs fat. Therefore, it pays to look over the 
supply of feed carefully, and make sure that one does not purchase 
more sheep or lambs than he can finish to good advantage. 

Bedding. — There is a variance of opinion as to the amount of 
bedding required by fattening sheep. Many provide nothing but 
the roughage waste. If there is a large quantity of this waste, it is 
quite sufficient, but if there is not, extra bedding should be pro- 
vided. To the Michigan feeder, however, who mows away all of his 
straw for sheep feed it may seem like extravagant waste to use it for 
bedding. But in regions where so much straw is wasted, it is good 



i 



SALT 



361 



economy to use it for bed(lin<;, because it will not only keep the 
sheep in better condition, but it will serve its purpose better as a 
fertilizer. 

Water. — Fattening sheep or lambs need clean, wholesome water, 
every day. In cold weather, lambs that are receiving nothing but 
dry feeds will drink a half-gallon (four pounds) daily, and on warm 
days they will drink much more. Care should be taken to keep the 
watering troughs clean and sweet. The water can be kept in more 
wholesome condition if the troughs are located out of doors, but if 




Fig. 217. — This man, who is sorting out the fat sheep to send to market, realizes that 
feeding is a fattening process. 

this is done, some provision has to be made to keep it from freezing. 
Salt. — All sheep kept on feeds that are produced in the j\liddle 
West and East crave salt. The reason for this is that there is not 
enough of this mineral in the feeds to satisfy the demands of the 
body for it. Salt may be given periodically, say twice a week, or it 
may be kept before the sheep all the time. As a rule tlie latter is the 
better practice, as it more nearly insures that the animals will get 
all the salt they need. But it should not be kept before them con- 
stantly until they have become accustomed to it. Cases have l)een 
reported of sheep and lambs dying because of their almost constant 



362 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING 

consumption of salt. Such cases do not seem to be numerous, hut 
should a few animals in a band have a craving for salt which cannot 
1)0 satisfied it would be better to feed it periodically. 

Sheds and Lots. — Suitable feeding grounds and sufficient 
shelter are of importance in successful sheep and lamb feeding. 
Practically all feeders emphasize the need of having dry, well- 
drained feeding grounds. Sheep dislike mud. A prominent Illinois 
farmer who has been successful in feeding sheep and lambs for the 
past fifteen or twenty years has made the statement tliat rather than 
let a band of lambs wade through a muddy gateway, he would make 
a passage for them by tearing down a section of fence where it is 
not muddy. 

Opinions differ as to the value of shelter for sheep and lambs on 
feed in regions where the fall and winter climate is variable. A few 
advocate no shelter whatever, while others maintain that the feeding 
process is more profitable if conducted entirely under shelter. Still 
others, in fact the majority, take the intermediate position, which is 
that sheep and lambs should be provided with enough shelter to 
protect them from storms, but that in fair weather they should be 
allowed to run in lots or in fields. Those who believe shelter is not 
essential to successful feeding usually have some natural protection, 
such as timber or hills to which the animals may go during stormy 
periods. With the aid of tliis protection they endure all but the 
worst storms without going back in condition, and many a band 
of western sliee]) and lambs has lieen made fat in the Middle West 
without having had access to shelter. 

Shelter is essential to the most sut;cessful feeding. There are 
seasons when persons who have the best natural protection find it 
hard to handle their sheep and lambs because of the frequent and 
long storm periods. At such times, these men would be much better 
equipped if they had sufficient shelter to house the animals on feed. 
There is a saying common on the Chicago market to the effect that 
farmers will start shipping half-fat sheep and lambs when the first 
snow flies, which means that they attempt to do their feeding in the 
cornstalks and are not adequately equipped with shelter. Daily 
reports of the livestock markets have frequently called attention to 
the fact that sheep and lambs from the cornstalks in the Middle 
West have been returned to market in lower condition than they were 
when they were sold out as feeders. No stronger statement can be 
made to indicate that such a practice i-s unprofitable, and perhaps no 



SHEDS AND LOTS 



363 



stronger statement can be made to emphasize tlie fact that in general 
shelter should be provided for feeder sheep and lambs wherever the 
climate is variable. 

If the shelter is constructed for no other puipose than for hous- 
ing fattening sheep, it need not be vl' an expensive ty])c'. From five 
to seven square feet, exclusive of space for racks, should be a Hotted 




Fig. 218. — A sheep feeditiK shed at feediiiK yards, Kirklard, niinois. 




to each sheep and the chief consideration should be to provide a 
shelter that is dry and well-ventilated. There is no need of extra 
effort to make it warm (Fig. 218). 

If outside lots are desired they should he located adjacent to the 
sheds or l)arns in order to prevent the sheep from talking needless 
exercise. These lots should be well drained, free from niud and not 
very large. It is a good plan to bed them deep with stalks or straw 
in order to keep a clean footing. The writer recalls an instance 



364 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING 

where sheep were given a run to an outside paved lot. In rainy- 
weather this lot was hard to handle hecause the dung, soon after it 
was dropped, became a semi-liquid mass which was injurious to the 
feet of the sheep. It is inadvisable to provide large lots because 
the sheep will take too much exercise and there is a great loss of 
manure. About the only useful function of the lots is to furnish 
an outlet for the sheep and thus keep the barns more nearly free 
from the strong odors which tend to depress the appetite of the 
animals. 

Troughs and Racks. — It is advantageous to use troughs and 
racks that can be kept clean, for sheep and lambs will rarely eat 
dirty feed. They are especially averse to consuming feed befouled 
by dung. Many feeders, knowing that sheep prefer to eat clean 
feed out of clean troughs, locate the troughs for grain outside the 
barns or sheds. Sometimes they ara located in a lot in which the 
sheep are not allowed to run except at feeding time. In this way 
the feeding place for grain is kept clean and appetizing. It is said 
that certain successful feeders in Ohio wash the grain troughs occa- 
sionally with lime water in order to keep them free from odors 
disagreeable to sheep (Fig. 219). 

Both troughs and racks should be constructed so that sheep 
cannot get into them with their feet. In nearly every band of 
feeders there are a few animals that desire to stand in the troughs 
and racks while they eat. It is needless to say that they would soil 
a great deal of feed if they could realize this desire. 

Length of Feeding Period. — The age, weight, and condition 
of the animals to be fed are factors which should be taken into 
consideration in determining the length of the feeding period. As 
a rule it does not pay to keep sheep or lambs on harvested or 
stored feeds for a long period. Yet there are Justifiable exceptions 
to this statement. If the feeder has a supply of feed of rather low 
grade, he may find it profitable to produce gains at a slow rate and 
to keep his sheep a long time. Those who buy little, weak lambs 
have no other alternative than a long feeding period; yet good 
profits have been made with such lambs by those equipped with com- 
fortable shelter and nutritious feeds. In general, however, the 
motto of feeders who follow the dry-lot method is large daily gains 
and rapid finish. They finish wethers in from 30 to 70 days ; 
yearlings in from 40 to 80 days, and lambs io rfnm 75 to 120 days. 

In case a lartfe number of animals are being feVl, some of them 



FIRST STEPS IN FP:EDING 365 

ma_y be sorted out and sent to market in 25 or 150 days after the 
feeding period begins. This is possible because all of the feeders 
purchased are rarely if ever in the same condition, and it requires 
but a few pounds of gain to make some of them ready for the 
mutton market. If tliere are enough of them to make one or more 
carloads, and if the market is satisfactory, it is better to market 
them before the thinner animals are ready to go. 

First Steps in Feeding. — Sheep and lambs should receive very 
close attention fo^- the first two or three days after they arrive at 
the place of feeding. The reason for this is that, as a rule, they 
have been through several days of rather rough treatment while 
enroute to the market and ])assing through it. During this time 
they may not have had enough feed to satisfy their appetite and 
perhaps not enough water to quench their thirst. Care should be 
taken not to allow them to rush to the watering troughs and drink 
all they can hold ; it is better to allow them to drink a little every 
few hours until their thirst is satisfied. In dry weather it is a good 
plan to scatter tiie first feed on the ground. In case it is advisable 
to feed from racks, there should l)e sufiicient space to accommodate 
all of the animals and the feed should be in place before they are 
turned in. 1 f these precautions are not taken tlie sheep are likely to 
" i)ile u]) "' in their anxiety to get to the feed and, as a result, some 
of them may I)e smothered. 

Nothing but dry roughage sliould be given at first. Succulent 
feed is likely to cause scours, and western sheep and lambs are not 
accustomed to a large amount of grain. 

There is practically no danger in giving feeder sheep and land)s 
all the choice roughage they will eat as soon as they arrive at the 
place of feeding. Alfalfa hay may prove an exception because a 
large quantity of it causes scours and occasionally bloat. 

The chief problem in getting sheep or laml)s on feed in the dry 
lot or in the fields, is to get them accustomed to feeds which are 
entirely new to them and which may cause physical disorders if not 
fed with caution. Clover hay may be entirely new to them — it 
usually is — 1)ut fortunately they may eat all they want of it from 
the very first. On the other hand, all henvy concentrates, except 
linseed oil meal fed in cool weather, must be fed in small or at 
least moderate quantities at first and gradually increawd. Nor is 
it advisable to feed corn silage in large amounts until the animals 
have l)ecome accustomed to it. 



366 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING 



The following tabulation from unpublished data at the Illinois 
Station indicates the daily amount of feed that was given per lamb 
in each week of the feeding period. It also serves to show about 
how fast feeds should be increased. Too much caution was taken 
in the amount of corn and silage given in the first two weeks, as the 
lambs lost when they should have gained in weight. At the begin- 
ning of the experiment the average weight of the lambs was 65 
pounds. 

Changes in Rations for feeding period of Seventeen Weeks. 



Sample Ration No. 1 




Sample 


Ration No. 2 




Week 


Shelled 
corn 


Clover 
hay 


Water 


Daily 
gain 


Shelled 
corn 


Corn 
silage 


Clover 
hay 


Water 


Daily 
gain 




Ihs. 


Ihs. 


Ihs. 


/6s. 


/6s. 


/6.S. 


ibs. 


/6s. 


/6s. 


1 


.22 


1.70 


2.85 


.15 


.20 


.32 


1.43 


2.38 


.38 


2 


.4.5 


1.70 


3.43 


.05 


.40 


80 


1.24 


2.19 


.14 


3 


.78 


1.35 


3.37 


.34 


.36 


1 18 


1.06 


2.79 


.34 


4 


.81 


1.39 


3.68 


.05 


.75 


1.03 


1.00 


2.89 


.11 


5 


.96 


1.37 


4.12 


.23 


.83 


1.29 


1.05 


3.25 


.25 


6 


1.06 


1.26 


4.09 


.25 


.94 


1.50 


.94 


3.47 


.32 


7 


1.19 


1.14 


3.96 


.34 


1.06 


1.75 


.92 


3.27 


.57 


8 


1.36 


1.03 


4.55 


.29 


1.06 


1.98 


.72 


3.66 


.29 


9 


1.38 


1.02 


4.36 


.16 


1.06 


2.00 


.69 


3.45 


.23 


10 


1.47 


.96 


4.14 


.39 


1.13 


2.38 


.56 


3.70 


.59 


11 


1.59 


.98 


6.17 


.43 


1.22 


2.63 


.51 


4.51 


.41 


12 


1.71 


.98 


4.82 


.45 


1.34 


2.63 


.52 


4.47 


.39 


13 


1.81 


.97 


5.45 


.54 


1.44 


2.63 


.43 


4.38 


.41 


14 


1.81 


.97 


4.96 


.21 


1.44 


2.44 


.51 


3.10 


.27 


15 


1.82 


.94 


2.90 


.14 


1.48 


2.63 


.55 


2.58 


.68 


16 


1.71 


.93 


5.13 


.54 


1.63 


2.61 


.52 


4.08 


.27 


17 


1.87 


.93 


5.45 


.36 


1.63 


2.63 


.53 


3.95 


.38 



Increasing Feed. — Empliasis has already been placed on tbe 
fact that certain feeds should be fed in small quantity at tlic 
beginning of the feeding period and then gradually increased. If 
possible, the increases should be made on clear, cool days. It is on 
such days that the appetite of shee|) or lambs is keenest ; hence they 
will eat an increased amount of feed with more relish than at any 
other time. Warm weather and great humidity have a depressing 
etfect upon the appetite of sheep. If they are on full feed at such 
times it is frequently necessary to reduce the amount of the ration. 

When are sheep or lambs on full feed? Sheep or lambs which 
are fed by hand may be considered on full feed when they fail to eat, 
within a few minutes, all of the concentrate part of their ration. 
They have more roughage than they should be fed when they leave 



IMPORTANCE OF EVEN CONDITIONS 367 

any consideral)le amoujit that is edible. This applies to the more 
palatable roughages, such as clover ha}^ alfalfa, and corn stover. 

What is known as the self-feeder method was generally used by 
the old-time operators and it is still employed in many large feeding 
plants. With this method the sheep or lambs are on full feed almost 
from the beginning of the feeding period. The system is carried 
out as follows: A large (juantity of feed is placed in racks or feed 
boxes to which the animals have free access. Hence they may have 
all they will oat. The I'ecd is usually, but not always, a mixture 
of concentrates and cliaffed roughage. At the beginning of the 
feeding period, the proportion of roughage is much greater than the 
concentrates. As the feeding period advances this proportion is 
changed gradually until tlio amount of concentrates becomes greater. 

Manner of Giving the Ration. — Where hand-feeding is prac- 
ticed, the concentrates sliould be fed lirst because that part of the 
ration should be eaten in a few minutes. After the concentrates 
should come the succulent feed, if any is being used, and finally the 
roughage. If combination grain and hay racks are being used, the 
succulent feed may be placed in the troughs and the hay or drv 
roughages in the racks. Thcji the sheep or lambs may take their 
time in consuming the feeds. If there is danger of freezing, how- 
ever, it is best to give the succulent feed some time before the 
roughage is placed in the racks. 

Feed regularly and twice each day. If the animals receive their 
feed at a set time, they remain quiet and contented at all other times. 
It is better to give all feeds twice each day, because in this wav 
there is less chance to gorge the stomach with any one feed. This is 
true particularly of all concentrates and to a certain extent of corn 
silage. Because of the succulent nature of silage it may be advisable 
to feed it three times a day. If more than one dry roughage is being 
fed it may be just as well, and perhaps advisable for the sake of con- 
venience, to feed one in the morning and the other in the evening. 

Since most of the feeding is done in the winter when the days 
are short there may be a tendency on the part of the feeder to feed 
l»efore daylight. If other work about the place does not make it 
necessary, this should not be done. Sheep or lambs will lie at rest 
until daybreak if not aroused, and their rest should be disturbed as 
little as possible. 

Importance of Even Conditions. — Because the rest of fatten- 
ing sheep or lambs should be disturbed as little as j)0ssible, their 



368 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN FEEDING 

quarters should be kept in the same condition eacli day with respect 
to noise. Many expert shepherds insist on quiet surroundings for 
the sheep under their care. And they liave good reason for doing 
so, but it is better to move about in the barn in a straiglitforward, 
deliberate manner than to tiptoe cautiously about. Unusual noises 
and circumstances are what cause sheep to jump to their feet and 
stampede to the opposite side of the barn or lot. 

Animals " Off Feed." — In spite of good care, good feeds, and 
good water, fattening sheep or lambs will go " off feed " occasionally. 
If a large percentage of the animals are indifferent towards their 
feed it is advisable to reduce immediately the amount of feed, it 
being often advisable to omit entirely the concentrate part of the 
ration for one or two feeds. In case a few refuse to eat for two or 
three successive feedings, they should be placed in a pen by them- 
selves and drenched with three ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in 
water. Use just enough water to get the salts into a solution. Al- 
though only a few may refuse to eat, it is usually advisable to reduce 
the quantity of concentrates being fed to the main flock for at least 
two or three feeds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why do feeder sheep and lanilis reacli tlie market in hiigest numbers 

in the fall? 

2. What is the purpose of sheep feeding? 

■3. What must one take into consideration when starting in the hxisiness 
of feeding? 

4. What things would you cnuMtU i in tiying to determine a future 

market ? 

5. Discuss tlie advantages and disadvantages of feeding in a dry lot. 

G. Is there any advantage of first feeding in the fields and then finishing 
in the dry lot? 

7. Wliat kind of shelter is needed to protect the feeder sheep? 

8. What is the variation in length of the feeding period for lambs? 

9. How would you start the sheep or lambs on feed? 

10. What is the chief problem of starting them directly in the dry lot? 

11. Discuss a method of increasing the feed. 

12. When are sheep and lambs on full feed? 

1.3. How would you proceed if tlie sheep or lambs get "off feed"? 



CHAPTEE XXXIX 

SOME IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE 

AND ECONOMY OF GAIN IN FATTENING 

SHEEP AND LAMBS 

The Effect of Age. — On Rate of Body Development. — The 

rate of growth in sheep decreases as they appi'oacli maturity. 
Seiiequier/ in investigating the hody development of ten ewes of 
the milking hreed of Larzac, observed that the most rapid increase 
in weight was during the first two months, and three-fourths of 
the increase was made during the first year. During the second 
year the rate of gain was slower and it was still slower from the 
twenty-fifth month to maturity. The weight at two months was 
about one-third of the average weight at maturity ; at the fifth 
month, one-half; between the sixth and seventh months, two- 
thirds; and between the eighth and ninth months, three-fourths 
of the adult weight. They were considered mature at the comple- 
tion of the second dentition, which was reached at from thirty- 
eight to forty-one months. 

Fattening Sheep of Different Ages. — I>ambs of feeder age 
(above five months) and in feeder condition gain somewhat more 
rapidly in weight and make considerably more economical use 
of feed than do older sheep. But since they grow as well as fatten, 
they require a little longer feeding period and a ration containing 
a higher percentage of protein. As compared with yearlings and 
wethers, they are not so well adapted to handling coarse feeds and 
feeds in slightly d'amaged condition, although it is seldom good 
policy to give feed of poor qualitv — as musty or moiddy feed — 
to any class of fattening sheep. Lambs also require a little more 
careful supervision than do yearlings and wethers, for they are 
more likely to go " off feed," and they are not quite so well adapted 
to running in the open without shelter. 

As a rule, feeders who are properly equipped with shelter and 
feed, prefer to handle lambs because they not only make more gain 

^"A'nTiales A<?roTiomiqxies " 21, 188.'), No. 9. 
24 369 



370 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 

from a given weight of feed, but they sell better as a prime product. 
That is, one year with another, the margin on prime lambs is 
likely to be greater than the margin on the prime grade of older 
sheep. Feeder lambs cost more per hundredweight than do yearlings 
and wethers, but in cases where the margin between cost and 
selling price is the same, the higher cost is an advantage. 

Yearlings and wethers, provided the latter are not greatly 
advanced in age, are about the same in their rate of gain and in 
the amount of feed they use to produce a pound of gain. Both 
are well adapted to making use of rations rather low in protein. 
At the Illinois Station the writer fed a lot of yearlings for 8-1 
days on corn, corn silage, and oat straw, that made almost as much 
gain and were judged to be equal in market finish to a lot fed 
corn, corn silage, and alfalfa hay. 

. Care must be exercised in feeding yearlings, for they will 
sell as wethers if they are made too heavy for the mutton yearling 
class, or if they become too mature to break at the epiphyseal 
cartilage (break joint) when they are slaughtered. 

Only a few feeder yearlings and wethers can be purchased 
on the open market. They have largely disappeared because in 
many places in the West where wethers were kept, sheep hus- 
bandry has been superseded by other types of agriculture, and in 
many other places in the West, conditions have changed so that 
breeding ewes are regarded as more profitable than wethers. There 
is a demand and hence a market for yearling and wether mutton, 
but in times of normal supply they are not logical mutton products, 
for if everything goes well so that the wether lamb is a fit product 
for mutton, it should be sold before it passes out of the lamb class. 

Old ewes make very good use of feed if their teeth are 
in good condition, but if they cannot masticate their food well, 
they must receive close attention. Their grain should be ground 
and their roughage should be of good quality. In Colorado it has 
been found that they make good use of beet pulp, and undoubtedly 
silage would serve well as one of the roughages in their ration. 

The following data obtained by Shaw at the Montana Station - 
show the results of fattening sheep of different ages. Particular 
attention should be given to the amount of hay each class consumed 
daily for a period of 88 days. 

^Montana Station Bulletin .3.'>. 



"^1 

4 



THE INFLUENCE OF SEX 



371 





Fattening Sheep of Different Ages. 




1 




Initial 
weight 


Feed per head per day 


Gain per 

head per 

day 


Feed required for one 
pound gain 




Barley 


Clover hay 


Grain 


Hay 


Lambs 

1 year wethers . . 

2 year wethers . . 
Aged ewes 


lbs. 

63 

95 

116 

92 


/6s. 
.68 

.68 
.68 
.68 


lbs. 

2.05 
3.77 
4.05 
2.33 


lbs. 
.27 
.27 
.28 
.177 


lbs. 

2.53 

2.56 

2.48 

3.86 


Iba. 

7.63 
14.15 
14.67 
13.18 



The writer,"' in a study of the effect of age and weight on the 
rate and econoany of gains, fed three lots of native lambs for a period 
of 98 days. The results are given in the following table : 

Rale and Economy of Gains with Lambs of Different Weights. 





Age at 
beginning 
of experi- 
ment 
(months) 


Initial 
weight 


Average feed con- 
sumed daily 


Average 
daily 
gain 


Feed required for 
one pound gain 


Lot 


Grain, 

Corn 4 

parts; oats 

1 part 


Clover 
hay 


Concen- 
trates 


Clover 
hay 


Lambs : 
1-10 
2-10 
3-10 


8.5 

7.0 
5.5 


lbs. 
95.4 

77.9 
62.6 


lbs. 

1.71 
1.59 
1.39 


lbs. 

2.25 
2.06 
1.57 


lbs. 
.28 
.28 
.30 


lbs. 

6.0 
5.6 
4.6 


/6s. 

8.0 
7.3 
5.6 



The Influence of Sex. — Sex is a consideration chiefly in feeding 
lambs as this is the only class in which ewes and wethers are 
placed together. Wether lambs are inclined to gain a little faster 
than ewes, but since the ewes are slightly superior in general (piality, 
they attain market finish quite as soon as the wethers and sell for 
as much per hundredweight. Both sexes are practically the same 
in the consumption of feed. 

Carcasses from wethers arc slightly thicker in lean meat than 
those from ewes, l)ut in the general meat trade no distinction is 
made between ewe and wether lamb mutton. 

Mature wethers usually sell for more per hundredweight than 
ewes because they dress out a higher percentage of carcass to live 
weight and their carcas.ses are somewhat more shapely. 

^ Thesis — Illinois Agricultural College. 



372 



FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 



The following comparison between wether and ewe lambs fed 
for a period of 90 days is taken from Illinois Station Bulletin 167 : 



Comparison of Wether and Ewe Lambs as to Feed Consumed and Gains Made. 





Proportion 

of corn to 

hay 


Shelled 

corn 
per head 


Alfalfa hay 
per head 


Gain 
per head 


Fed alike : 

Lot 1(20 wethers) 

Lot 5 (20 ewes) 


1:0.99 
1:1.00 


lbs. 

111.6 
110.4 


lbs. 

110.4 
110.4 

127.7 
125.3 


lbs. 

27.05 
27.14 


Fed alike: 

Lot 2 (20 wethers) 

Lot 6 (20 ewes) 


1:1.36 
1: 1.34 


94.3 
93.5 


24.22 
22.05 



The Influence of Shearing. — Where good housing facilities 
have been available, shearing before the fattening period has be- 
come far advanced has been extensively practiced chiefly for the 
purpose of stimulating the appetite and increasing the rate of gain. 
This practice undoubtedly increases the appetite, but it does not 
materially increase the rate of gain unless the animals are made 
more comfortable by removing the fleece. When the barn is large 
and the system of ventilation such that cold draughts can be 
avoided, a large number of sheep crowded in close will probably 
be more comfortable out of the fleece even in cold weather. But 
it seldom pays to shear when the weather is cold except under such 
circumstances as the necessity of getting more sheep into the shelter 
available or of getting rid of ticks. 

If the feeding period advances into the spring months, after 
the weather has become warm enough to make sheeji in the fleece 
uncomfortable, then it will pay to shear, for the rate of gain will 
be considerably increased. 

It may pay to shear just before marketing. More sheep can be 
placed in a car, and if the margin between clipped and undipped 
sheep is small, some money may be made by removing the fleeces. 
But before proceeding to do it, the feeder should be sure that a good 
■weight of desirable wool will be secured, and he should know 
something of how to dispose of it. 

Self-feeders. — \^^en the practice of feeding western sheep and 
lambs first began, nearly all of the large operators used self-feeders 
and they are still used in various places. Whether or not the self- 



PROPORTION OF GRAIN AND ROUGHAGE 373 

feeder can be success I'ully employed depends upon the nature of 
the feed to be used. C'hafl'ed or finely cut roughage mixed with 
the concentrates serves to ligiiten the ration and when this is done 
good results are generally secured. Feeders who use mill screen- 
ings begin the feeding period with light screenings; that is, those 
containing a proportionately large amount of straw and chatf; 
then as the period advances, they gradually work up to the heaviest 
type of screenings they can secure, and frequently they mix in 
some ground corn. Usually roughage of some sort is available in 
separate racks. 

Where large numbers are fed, the self-feeder undoubtedly saves 
lal)or, and sliortens the feeding period, but the losses are usually 
greater, and experiments show that more feed is required to pro- 
duce a hundred pounds of gain where the self-feeder is used tlian 
where the feed is given in definite quantities twice a day. After 
60 or 70 days on the self-feeder, sheep and lambs tend to go 
" off feed." 

In order to feed corn and alfalfa in self-feeders it would be 
necessary to grind the corn, chaff the hay, and mix them. The 
cost of doing all this would be almost or quite as great as the cost 
of feeding twice daily and the amount of gain from the feed 
consumed would be less. Therefore, the use of the self-feeder i'- 
not advisable where the cost of preparing the feed is an item of 
considerable expense. 

Proportion of Grain and Roughage. — Sheep are regarded as 
animals unusually well adapted to the consumption of rougha'-je 
and even in the process of fattening they can make economical 
use of relatively large quantities of it. But the attempts that have 
))een made to fatten entirely on dry roughage have not resulted in 
producing enough finish to satisfy the demands of the market. 
On the other hand, when an attempt is made to feed entirely 
on concentrates, the animals go '' off feed," and if roughage is 
not supplied serious digestive disord'ers develop. The digestive 
tract of the sheep is adapted to bulky feed, therefore roui^fhage 
cannot be dispensed with. It is possible, however, successfully to 
vary the proportion of concentrates and roughage in the ration 
of fattening sheep and lambs. This is a matter of importance, 
for in some seasons the supply of grain is relatively largo while in- 
others the opposite situation exists. Then, there are regions where 
the supply of the best of roughage always overbalances the supply 



374 



FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 



of grain and the problem in fattening consists in determining how 
little grain can be used with hay supplied ad libitum. 

In fattening lambs at the Illinois Station,'' the writer found 
that it was possible in a period of 98 days to feed 100 pounds of 
com to every 86 pounds of alfalfa hay. This ration produced 
a prime market finish and was satisfactory in all respects except 
that it required close watching at times to keep the lambs from 
going " off feed." In the first third of the feeding period, 100 
pounds of corn was fed to every 15T pounds of hay; in the last 
third, 100 pounds was fed to every 6G pounds of hay. In a period 
of 90 days it was not possible to get lambs fed 100 pounds of 
corn to every 242 pounds of hay in choice market condition. The 
gains made seemed to be more in the nature of growth than of fat. 
But lambs fed 100 pounds of corn to every 203 pounds of hay 
for a period of 98 days were graded as prime. 

The table which follows gives further details of these experi- 
ments on the proportions of corn and alfalfa hay for fattening 
lambs as reported in Illinois Station Bulletin 167. 

Average Feed, Gain Per Lamh Per Day, and Feed Required Per Pound Gain 
(All weights expressed in pounds) 



Eroportion 
of corn to 
Lot hay- 



hay 



Average 

corn per lamb 

per day 



Average 
alfalfa hay per 
lamb per day 



Gain per 
lamb per day 



Corn required 

for one pound 

g&.in 



Alfalfa hay 

required for 

one pound 

gain 



Experiment No. 1. — Feeding period 90 days, Oct. 23 to Jan. 20. Twenty 
wether lambs in each lot. Approximate initial weight per lamb, 69 pounds. 



1 1:0.99 


1.24 


1.22 


.300 


4.12 


4.08 


2 1:1.36 


1.05 


1.41 


.269 


3.89 


5.27 


3 1:2.42 


.71 


1.71 


.216 


3.27 


7.91 


4 1:3.45 


.54 


1.87 


.203 


2.66 


9.18 



Experiment No. 2. — Feeding period 98 days, Feb. 19 to May 27. Twenty 
wether lambs in each lot. Approximate initial weight per lamb, 65 pounds. 



1 1 : 0.86 

2 1:1.31 

3 1:2.03 


1.36 
1.14 

.88 


1.17 
1.49 
1.78 


.331 
.320 
.294 


4.11 
3.56 
2.99 


3.53 
4.66 
6.06 



The Form in Which Feeds Should Be Given. — The grinding 
•or crushing of grain does not materially improve it as a feed for 



*See table on this page. 



FORM IN WHICH FEEDS SHOULD BE GIVEN 375 

fattening sheep and lambs having sound teeth. Apparently the 
reason for this is that the sheep so thoroughly masticates its feed 
that very little of it passes into the stomach without being pre- 
pared for the various processes of digestion. It may be of some 
advantage to grind very small or unusually hard' seeds if the grind- 
ing does not make them less palatable. Faville ^ in feeding bald 
or hulless barley to lambs noticed that some of it was passed undi- 
gested ; and Cochel at the Kansas Station secured a given amount 
of gain from less feed with ground kafir than with whole kafir com. 

Grinding seems to reduce rather than increase the palatability 
of grain. If not consumed soon after grinding it is likely to 
become rancid or musty, and even if it is fresh it is usually not eaten 
with so much relish as whole grain because it gets into the nostrils 
and also forms a pasty mass inside the mouth. Cooke ® found the 
latter to be an objection to ground bald barley. 

A heavy grain like com should be ground when it is to be 
mixed with lighter feeds and placed in self-feeders. If whole 
corn were mixed with chaffed hay or with wheat screenings, it is 
possible for the animals to sort out the corn and leave the other 
feed, or vice versa. Even when whole corn and whole oats form 
a mixture, it is possible for the animals to take one and leave 
the other. 

Under the conditions in which most sheep feeding is done, 
corn is most convenient to use when it is in the shelled form, but 
it can be used as ear corn, shock corn, or ground corn. When it 
forms the sole concentrate in the ration, grinding never improves 
its feeding value for sheep able to masticate it. When fed as 
com-and-cob meal, the cob replaces a little hay, but the total 
feeding value of the corn is red*uced. Ear corn is as efficient 
as sihelled corn for producing gain, but when feeding in lots or 
sheds it is difficult to keep the sheep from wasting feed by dropping 
some of the ears on the ground and there is a tendency for the 
ears to roll up and bunch up so that there is an unequal distribution 
of feed in the troughs. Shock corn is better suited to feeding on 
grass sod than in barns or lots. When placed in racks the ears 
are likely to be very unevenly distributed. 

At the Illinois Station the writer conducted an experiment in 

"Wyoming Station Bulletin 103. 
* Colorado Station Bulletin 40. 



376 



FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 



which clover hay and corn in various forms were fed for a period 
of 98 days to lambs weighing 65 pounds. The results are shown 
in the following table : 



Methods of Preparing Corn for Fattening Lambs. 






Daily gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 




Corn 


Roughage 


1 Ear corn, 1.6 lbs.; clover hay, 1.3 lbs 

2 Shelled corn, 1.3 lbs.; clover hay, 1.3 lbs.. . 

3 Ground corn, 1.3 lbs.; clover hay, 1.3 lbs.. . 

4 Corn-and-cob meal, 1.5 lbs.; clover hav, 

1.2 lbs ". . 


lbs. 
0.293 
0.295 
0.264 

0.264 

0.247 


lbs. 
439^;^ 
432 
483 

489* 

23 


lbs. 
453 
449 
505 

475 


5 Shelled corn, 0.06 lb.; clover hay, 1.0 lb.; 
shock corn, 2.7 lbs 


406 




l.lllt 



* Reduced to shelled corn basie. 

t Shock corn, containing 53 per cent of ears. 

The widely-used protein concentrates, linseed oil meal and 
cottonseed meal, are in more convenient form to use with whole 
grain if they can be secured in the form of what is known as pea- 
size cake. They are also more palatable in this form because they 
do not get in the nostrils or become sticky in the mouths of the 
animals. 

Roughages. — Most roughages should he fed in the form in 
which they are harvested and stored. Coarse, stemmy hay may 
he consumed with less waste if it is cut or chaffed. Should bloating 
result from the use of alfalfa the trouble may be olwiated by 
cutting or chaffing the hay. Shredding or cutting corn stover makes 
it more convenient to feed in racks, but if it is shredded there is 
some danger of indigestion from eating the pith in the stalks. 

The economical use of roughage depends mainly upon feeding 
no more of it than the sheep want, and in having racks that will pre- 
vent it from being wasted. In feeding choice clover or alfalfa, 
there is no need of wasting any hay, but as a rule the more or less 
unpalatable roughages such as oat and wheat straw can not be 
fed up so closely. 

Succulent Feeds. — Silage. — Sheep utilize silage to best advan- 
tage when the corn plant is cut very fine. In making the silage, all 
of the knives should be in the cutter and they should be kept sharp. 
The use of mouldy and frozen silage should be avoided. 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FATTENING RATION 



377 



Roots, such as turnips and mangels, should be cut or chopped 
before they are placed in the troughs, for if fed in the whole form, 
they roll about, and in cold weather they are likely to freeze 
before they are eaten. 

Condition of Feed. — Mouldy, musty, and frozen feeds should 
not be given to fattening sheep because they are likely to cause 
serious digestive disturbances. But salvage (grain damaged in 
elevator fires) is frequently used by experienced feeders. Stack- 
burned clover and alfalfa hay, although lower in feeding value than 
sound hay, have been found to be very palatable and useful. 

The Digestible Nutrients in the Fattening Ration. — The 
digestible nutrients in a ration made by properly combining corn 
and legume hay represent what is commonly regarded as the 
standard requirement for fattening slieep and lambs. A ration 
of this sort produces about three-tenths of a pound gain per sheep 
per day and puts the animal in prime condition in 80 to 100 days. 
The following table compiled from Illinois Station Bulletin 1G7 
indicates the digestible nutrients in rations made by combining 
corn and alfalfa hay in different proportions. These rations were 
fed for a period of 98 days to lambs with an initial weight of 65 
pounds, and since the lowest daily gain per lamb was 294 thou- 
sandths of a pound, each ration was satisfactory for the purpose of 
fattening. 

Digestible Nutrients in Each Day's Ration. 





Average feed per day 


Digestible nutrients per day 


Nutritive 
ratio 




Lot 


Corn 


Alfalfa bay 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates and 
fat* 


Daily gain 
per lamb 


1 

2 
3 


lbs. 

1.36 

1.14 

.88 


lbs. 

1.17 
1.49 

1.78 


lbs. 
.258 
.281 
.290 


lbs. 

1.651 
1.641 
1.460 


1:6.4 
1:5.8 
1:5.0 


.33 
.32 
.29 



• Fat reduced to carbohydrate equivalent by multiplying by 2}4. 

The lower rate of gain in Lot 3 as compared with Lot 1 was 
in all probability due to the greater amount of roughage and 
the smaller amount of grain in the ration rather than to the pro- 
portionate amounts of protein and carbohydrates and fat. In fact, 
various experiments tend to show that the rate of gain is slightly 
increased when the corn and legume hay combination is supple- 



378 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 

mented so that a nitrogenous concentrate such as linseed oil meal 
or cottonseed meal forms about 15 per cent of the concentrate part 
of the ration. 

Apparently sheep are adapted to making good use of compara- 
tively large quantities of jirotein. At the Illinois Station, Carroll '^ 
fed three lots of lambs from the time they were old enough to eat 
grain until they were about ten months old as follows : 

Concentrates ■\ Roughage 

Lot l,Corn 50 per cent; linseed oil meal 50 per cent { Alfalfa in o^reen 
Lot 2, Corn 75 per cent; linseed oil meal 25 per cent t , , ,", 

Lot 3, Corn 95 per cent; linseed oil meal 5 per cent ) "^ 

The lambs given the largest quantity of protein were the heaviest 
and they were thrifty in every respect. But owing to the high 
price of linseed oil meal, the cost of growth was greater than in 
the lots where more corn was consumed. 

The Lemar Brothers of South Omaha, Nebraska, after years 
of experience in feeding lambs on a large scale have come to use 
a ration composed of linseed oil meal and prairie hay. The oil 
meal is placed in self-feeders and the lambs are brought in direct 
from the market and' allowed to eat all they want. After about 
two weeks have elapsed, the self-feeders are filled with a mixture 
half corn and half linseed oil meal. This ration which seems to be so 
greatly overbalanced with protein is regarded by the Lemar 
Brothers as the best they have ever used. They get very rapid 
gains and the lambs are ready for market after a short period 
of feeding. They report a little larger percentage of losses since 
they have adopted this system, but these are more than offset by 
the increased rate of gain over other methods they have employed. 
The larger losses are not due to the large percentage of protein 
in the feed, but rather to the fact that the lambs are allowed to 
eat all they want of a heavy concentrate from the beginning of 
the feeding period. 

On the other hand, skillful Michigan feeders, wlien feeding corn 
or salvage, use equal (juantities of straw and legume hay. That is, 
.they give hay at one feeding and straw at the other, and they 
think that they get as good results as they do when they use 
legume hay altogether as roughage. 

'Doctor's thesis, under direction of Prof. Grjndley. 



CONCENTRATES FOR FATTENING 



379 



In a compilation from various experiments on lamb feeding, 
Henry and Morrison * show that when corn silage (a carbonaceous 
succulent which would reduce the percentage of protein in the 
ration) has been fed in conjunction witli corn and clover hay, the 
lambs fed silage ate six-tenths of a pound less hay and one-tenth 
of a pound less com daily and yet gained slightly more than those 
fed clover hay and shelled corn. Experiments conducted by 
Skinner and King,® however, show that when cottonseed meal 
formed from 12 to 19 per cent of the grain part of the ration, 
the rate of gain was increased from 1 to 2 per cent. 

In general, such a balance in digestible nutrients as is to be 
found in a ration composed of corn and clover hay is about what 
is required for fattening lambs. The advisaliility of using a 
larger amount of protein depends chiefly on whether it can be pro- 
cured at such a price that it will pay to use it. If a palatable suc- 
culent, such as corn silage, is used to sup])lement corn and legume 
hay, the amount of digestible protein can be reduced somewhat 
and the ration will still be satisfactory for fattening purposes. 

Older sheep can be fattened on rations containing relatively 
less protein than is contained in those suitable for lambs. From 
investigations by Bull and Emmett ^^ of the Illinois Experiment Sta- 
tion the following feed requirements for fattening lambs have been 
determined, and the requirements for the third group (lambs 
weighing from 00-110 pounds) may be regarded as similar to the 
requirements for sheep. 



Variation in Rations for Lambs of Different Weights. 

Live Weight. 



-Per Day Per 1000 lbs. 



Weight of 
lambs 


Nutritive ratio 1: 


Dry matter 


Digestible crude 
protein 


Total digestible 
nutrients 


lbs. 
50- 70 

70- 90 
90-110 


5.0-6.0 
6.7-7.2 
7.0-8.0 


lbs. 

27.0-30.0 
28.0-31.0 
27.0-31.0 


lbs. 
3.1-3.3 
2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 


lbs. 
19.0-22.0 
20.0-23.0 
19.0-23.0 



Concentrates for Fattening. — Grains. — Corn, barley, wheat, 
emmer, kafir corn, and oats are the grains u.sed in the United 



'"Feeds and Feeding," 1916. 

"Indiana Station Bulletins 162, 168, 179. 

"Illinois Station Bui. 166. 



380 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 

States for fattening sheep and lambs. All of these give best results 
when supplemented with a legume roughage. If they are fed with 
carbonaceous roughages, a nitrogenous concentrate such as linseed 
oil meal or cottonseed meal should form from 20 to 25 per cent 
of the grain part of the ration. There may be exceptions to this last 
statement when sheep (not lambs) are fed and when a succulent 
such as corn silage forms part of the roughage. 

Of the various grains, corn, the feeding value of which has already 
been discussed, is the best and most widely used. Wheat is seldom 
used unless it is in such condition as to be of low value for milling 
]mrposes. It compares favorably with corn, as it produces about 
the same gains and requires only 2 per cent more total feed to 
produce a pound of gain. 

Barley is used extensively in the West, especially in Colorado. 
It is not quite equal to corn as measured by rate of gain and the 
amount of feed required to produce a pound of gain, but it com- 
bines well with alfalfa hay. 

Emmer is being used as a sheep feed in the Dakotas and in the 
northern Eocky Mountain states. Experiments indicate that it 
requires more feed and does not produce gains as rapidly as corn 
and prol)ably it is not quite so good as barley. Nevertheless, it 
is a useful feed for fattening. 

Kafir corn is coming more and more into use as a crop in the 
West and Southwest, and the indications are that it can be profit- 
ably emjiloyed as a grain for fattening sheep. Cochel, of the Kansas 
Station, compared it with corn in feeding 56-pound lambs for 
60 days. An average daily ration of 1.4 pounds alfalfa hay, 
1.1 pounds sweet sorghum silage, 0.19 pound cottonseed meal, and 
0.9 pound whole kafir produced a daily gain of 0.35 pound, while 
an equal amount of corn, replacing kafir, produced 0,40 pound gain. 

Oats are not widely used as a sole concentrate in fattening sheep 
and lambs because they are usually high in price and they produce 
growth rather than fat. If they do not add too much to the cost 
of the ration, they can be used to advantage when mixed with 
other grains. If they are mixed with a heavy grain such as corn, 
they serve to " lighten " the grain ration and make it more suitable 
for lambs starting on feed. 

When two or more of the grains mentioned above are available, 
there is no objection to making a mixture of them. In fact, there 
is some advantage when variety is added to the ration. It is doubt- 



COMMERCIAL CONCENTRATES 381 

ful, however, whether oats should form a large part of the ration 
throughout the feeding period. 

Peas and Beans. — Various kinds of peas and beans are nearly 
always too high in price to be used as the sole concentrate for fat- 
tening sheep and lambs, but being rich in protein, they can often 
be profitably utilized as a supplement to carbonaceous feeds. Field 
peas and soybeans are unusually palatable and when added to less 
palatable feeds serve as a means for increasing the consumption 
of feed. 

Commercial Concentrates. — Linseed and cottonseed cake or 
meal are used extensively in sheep feeding for balancing rations too 
low in protein. They both have practically the same value for this 
purpose. Cottonseed meal contains more digestible protein than the 
cold-ju'essed cottonseed cake. 

Wheat bran, wheat middlings, gluten feed, dried distillers' 
grains, fish meal, dried blood, and tankage are not widely used 
in the United States in the rations of fattening sheep and lambs. 
Wheat bran is palatable and if price warrants it, it may be used 
to " lighten " the grain part of the ration at the beginning of the 
feeding period. Gluten feed is not palatable and hence very 
little of it is used. Morrison and' Kleinheinz " found that tankage 
mixed with 9 parts of coarsely ground corn was readily eaten by 
lambs and when fed with corn and poor (piality, over-ripe blue- 
grass hay, 10 per cent tankage was equal to 18 per cent linseed 
meal in balancing the ration. 

Beet by-products are carbonaceous in nature. Dried beet pul[) 
compares fav()rai)iy with corn as a fattening feed, and the wet pulp 
is very effective for fattening old ewes. 

Various molasses products have been used to limited extent 
and' in tlic main are reported to be appetizing. 

Wheat screenings, an elevator and flouring-mill by-])roduct. 
are a ccmiplete sheep feed. That is, on account of chaff and bits 
of straw in them, they can, if necessary, be used without any 
roughage. Their fattening value is variable and indefinite because 
they do not nm even in the proportion of grain and seeds they con- 
tain. Nevertheless, feeders who operate on a large scale learn to 
judge their feeding value fairly closely and they like to use them 
when they are to be had at reasonable prices. 

""Feeds and Feeding," 191G. 



382 



FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 



Comparison of Various Concentrates. — The following table 
from " Feeds and Feeding "' by Henry and Morrison gives the 
digestible nutrients in the various concentrates used in sheep 
feeding : 

Composition of Various Concentrates. 



Feeding stuff 



Total 

dry 
matter 
in 100 

lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude 

pro- 
tein 



Carbo- 

hy- 
drates 



Fat Total 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 1: 



Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Gluten feed, high grade 

Wheat, all analyses . . . 

Wheat bran, all analyses 

Oats 

Barley 

Emmer (spelt) 

Kafir grain . 

Cottonseed meal, choice 

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake . 
Linseed meal, old process .... 
Linseed meal, new process . . . . 

Bean, navy, cull 

Cowpea 

Pea, field 

Soybean 

Beet pulp, dried 



lbs. 

89.5 
89.6 
9L3 
89.8 
89.9 
90.8 
90.7 
9L3 
88.2 
92.5 
92.1 
90.9 
90.4 
87.2 
88.4 
90.8 
90.1 
91.8 



7.5 

6.1 

21.6 

9.2 

12.5 

9.7 

9.0 

9.5 

9.0 

37.0 

21.1 

30.2 

31.7 

18.3 

19.4 

19.0 

30.7 

4.6 



67.8 
63.7 
51.9 
67.5 
41.6 
52.1 
66.8 
63.2 
65.8 
21.8 
33.2 
32.6 
37.9 
54.3 
54.5 
55.8 
22.8 
65.2 



lbs. 
4.6 
3.7 
3.2 
1.5 
3.0 
3.8 
1.6 
1.7 
2.3 
8.6 
7.4 
6.7 
2.8 
0.8 
1.1 
0.6 
14.4 
0.8 



lbs. 

85.7 
78.1 
80.7 
80.1 
60.9 
70.4 
79.4 
76.5 
80.0 
78.2 
70.9 
77.9 
75.9 
74.4 
76.4 
76.2 
85.9 
71.6 



10.4 
11.8 
2.7 
7.7 
3.9 
6.3 
7.8 
7.1 
7.9 
1.1 
2.4 
1.6 
1.4 
3.1 
2.9 
3.0 
1.8 
14.6 



Roughages for Fattening. — Legume Hay. — Eoughages made 
from the legumes are the best for fattening sheep as tbey are 
palatable and properly supplement the various grains commonly 
used. Eed clover and alfalfa lead in popularity because they are 
widely grown and they are not so steimny and coarse as the hay 
made from soybeans, cowpeas, etc. Furthermore, there is no grain 
in the hay to make the adjustment of the ration more or less 
difficult. Experiments show clover hay to be slightly superior to 
alfalfa pound for pound, but the difference between them is very 
slight. Alsike clover compares favorably with red clover, but 
English or mammoth clover is stemmy. Little is known of the 
feeding value of sweet clover hay. 

Trials with soybean and cowpea hay of good quality indicate 
that they are about equal to alfalfa in feeding value. 



ROOTS AND SILAGE 383 

Field bean straw and bean pods are prized b}^ feeders in Michi- 
gan as they are valuable substitutes for clover hay. 

Carbonaceous Roughages. — In making use of carbonaceous 
roughages, the concentrate part of the ration as stated elsewhere 
should be comparatively rich in protein. Corn stover is palatable 
and it is a good roughage if the com plant is cut fairly early, cured 
well and kept in good condition. On account of the coarse stalks 
the percentage of waste is high and the discarded parts do not 
make very good bedding. 

Sorghum hay is about like com stover in feeding value. 

Oat and wheat straw are unsuited as the sole roughage in the 
fattening ration. They can perhaps be used to best advantage in 
combination with corn silage, but good use can be made of them 
in connection with legume hay. It is best to feed straw in rather 
small quantities as the animals will eat more of it when fed in 
that way than when given a supply large enough to last for 
several days. 

The value of straw for feed depends in large part on its 
quality. Short, fine, and bright oat straw, cut l:)efore the oat plants 
are thoroughly ripe, is almost as palatable as legume hay. If straw 
of good quality is available at one-third of the cost of legume 
roughage, it will pay to feed some of it if given no oftener than 
twice or three times a week. It furnishes a harmless change 
which stimulates the consuming power of the animals. 

Timothy hay, market value considered, is an exceedingly poor 
roughage for sheep as it is unpalatable and constipating. A mix- 
ture of timothy and' clover, however, makes a very good roughage 
provided at least half of the mixture is clover. Marsh hay ranks 
with timothy hay as a poor roughage. Neither is as good as good 
oat straw. 

Prairie hay has been used extensively in fattening sheep where 
self-feeders are used. It is fairly palatable, but considerably lower 
in feeding value than the legume hays. A combination of legume 
hay and good bright straw should give better results than prairie hay. 

Roots and Silage. — Eoots and silage are succulent feeds suit- 
able for being used as supplements to grain and' dry roughage. On 
account of the cost of production, very little use is made of roots 
in fattening sheep and lam])s in the United States, but if they 



384 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 

.should be available, three to four pounds per head daily could be 
used to advantage. It is not safe, however, to feed mangels for a 
long period as they tend to cause disorders in the urinary tract 
of males, by producing calculi or stones in the kidneys. 

Of late years, corn silage has come into pretty general use in 
many sections of the country as a sheep feed. It is not a con- 
centrate and it is a mistake to regard it as such. Experiments 
have also demonstrated that it is not a complete roughage. It has 
l)een used as the sole roughage, but the appetite is better, the animals 
are easier to keep " on feed," and the gains are larger if some dry 
roughage is used with it. Roughages of rather low feeding value, 
such as wheat and oat straw, added to grain and silage, materially 
increase the effectiveness of the ration. In fact, one of the best 
ways to make good use of these roughages consists in supplementing 
them with silage and a concentrate comparatively rich in protein. 

As a rule silage when added to a well-l)alanced ration such as 
corn and legume hay lowers the cost of fattening, but it does not 
materially increase the gains. Evidently the succulence has a 
beneficial effect which is offset by the carbonaceous nature of the 
silage, for when a nitrogenous concentrate is added the rate of gain 
is increased. But whether it will pay to add the nitrogenous sup- 
plement will depend upon how nearly its cost corresponds with the 
cost of grain forming the bulk of the concentrate part of the ration. 

When fattening lambs are fed grain, legume hay, and silage, 
their average consumption of silage is about 1.5 pound's per day. 
It replaces about 0.1 pound of corn and 0.6 pound of hay. If the 
supply of dry roughage is limited, it is possible to replace still 
more of it with the silage, but as suggested above, silage should 
not be the sole roughage in the ration. 

Sorghum silage has been used to a limited extent in the South- 
west and very good results have been obtained from it. 

Pea silage has been successfully used in fattening sheep and 
lambs in the vicinity of canning factories. This silage is greatly 
relished and lambs can eat as much as 7 pounds daily at the 
beginning of the feeding period without scouring or going "off 
feed." Several years ago the writer inspected the feeding opera- 
tions of the Columbus Canning Company, Columbus, Wisconsin. 
This company was putting what the market calls fancy-finish on 



SUCCULENT FEEDS COMPARED 



385 



lambs by feeding screenings and corn in self-feeders, a little hay 
and all the pea silage the lambs would take. 

Roughages Compared. — The following table taken from 
" Feeds and Feeding," by Henry and Morrison, gives the digestible 
nutrients in various roughages for sheep. 



Composition of Roughages. 



Feeding stuff 



Dried Roughage 

Clover, red, all analyses 

Clover, alsike, all analyses 

Clover, mammoth red 

Alfalfa, all analyses 

Soybean hay 

Cowpea, in bloom to early pod. . . . 
Corn stover (ears removed), very dry 
Corn stover, medium in water. . . . 

Corn stover, high in water 

Kafir stover, dry 

Red top, all analyses 

Tomothx', all analyses 



Total 

dry 

matter 

in 100 

lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude 
pro- 
tein 



lbs. 

87.1 

87.7 

81.3 
91.4 
91.4 
89.4 
90.6 
81.0 
59.0 
83.7 
S0.2 
88.4 



lbs. 

7.6 

7.9 

6.4 

10.6 

11.7 

12.6 

2.2 

2.1 

1.4 

1.7 

4.6 

3.0 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Fat 



lbs. 

39.3 
36.9 
37.2 
39.0 
39.2 
34.6 
47.8 
42.4 
31.1 
43.1 
45.9 
42.8 



lbs. 
1.8 
1.1 
1.8 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 
1.0 
0.7 
0.6 
1.3 
1.2 
1.2 



Total 



lbs. 

50.9 
47.3 
47.6 
51.6 
53.6 
50.1 
52.2 
46.1 
33.9 
47.7 
53.2 
48.5 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 1: 



5.7 

5.0 

6.4 

3.9 

3.6 

3.0 

22.7 

21.0 

23.2 

27.1 

10.6 

15.2 



Succulent Feeds Compared. — The folowing table from " Feeds 
and Feeding," by Henry and ^lorrison, gives the digestible nutrients 
in various succulent feeds for sheep. 

Composition of Succulent Feeds. 



Feeding-stuff 



Fresh Green Roughage 

Beet pulp, wet 

Beet, common 

Mangel 

Rutabaga 

Corn well matured, recent analyses 

Sorghum 

Pea-cannery refuse 

25 



Total 

dry 
matter 
in 100 

lbs. 



lbs. 

9.3 
13.0 

9.4 
10.9 
26.3 
22.8 
23.2 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude 
pro- 
tein 



lbs. 

0.5 
0.9 
0.8 
1.0 
1.1 
0.6 
1.6 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



lbs. 
6.5 
9.1 
6.4 

7.7 
15.0 
11.6 
11.6 



Fat 



lbs. 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.7 
0.5 
0.8 



Total 



lbs. 

7.4 
10.2 

7.4 

9.4 
17.7 
13.3 
15.0 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 1: 



13.8 

10.3 

8.2 

8.4 

15.1 

21.2 

8.4 



386 FACTORS AFFECTING GAIN IN FATTENING 

QUESTIONS 

1. What effect has age on the rate of growth in sheep ? Upon the utiliza- 

tion of feed? 

2. What factors influence the efficiency of a ration for fatt«ning slieep 

and lambs? 

3. Would you attempt to fatten sheep solely on silage and dry roughage? 

4. Would you attempt to fatten sheep solely on grain? 

5. Of what advantage are self-feeders in fattening sheep? In what par- 

ticulars is hand-feeding more advantageous? 
fi. When would it pay to shear fattening sheep and lambs just before 
marketing? 

7. How much gain should a fattening lamb make in 90 days? 

8. How much corn and alfalfa hay will it require to feed a fattening lamb 

for 90 days? 

9. How much com, corn silage, and clover hay will it require to feed a 

fattening lamb for 90 days? 

10. Construct a fattening ration for sheep from clover hay, oat straw, 

corn, and linseed oil meal. 

11. What is the distinguishing diflference between a legume and a carbon- 

aceous roughage? 



i 



CHAFrER XL 

FEEDING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN THE FIELD 

THROUGH A PART OR ALL OF THE 

FEEDING PERIOD 

Only rugged slieep and ]aml).s .should he selected for feeding in 
fields and they should be purchased before the feeds have deteriorated 
greatly in feeding value through exposure to winds, rains, and frosts. 
Hard frosts lessen the value of clover and similar growths and high 
winds and heavy rains rapidly reduce the value of corn stalks. 

Usefulness of Various Field Feeds. — Grass. — (Jrass is a very 
great help to the man wIhj feeds sheep (mi his fields. A successful 
feeder in central Illinois has said: " I have found that I must have 
an area of good grass in order to fatten sheep or lambs in the fields. 
1 once tried plowing up all of my pastures in order to grow more 
corn. I thought that sowing rye in the corn stalks would take the 
]>lace of my fields of grass, hut I was mistaken. T was obliged to 
reestablish my pastures." 

A bluegrass pasture that has been rested through the summer 
furnishes palataljle feed which has a great deal of fattening power. 
A pasture of this sort is also an excellent place on which to scatter 
such feeds as ear corn and shock corn, and no better place can be 
found in the open for the sheej) or lambs to rest and sleep. 

Bluegrass fits in very well with the other feeds available on the 
farm. Being palatable and succulent, it is a splendid alternate 
Iced with corn or stalks, and if the sheep or lambs are given a chance 
to run on both corn stalks and bluegrass they will divide the time 
between these runs each day. Early in the autumn, before it is time 
to turn in on the com stalks, bluegrass alternates well with clover. 
As the sole feed, green clover is too sappy to make a good rate of 
gain, but sheep and lamljs make good use of it if it is fed with blue- 
grass, field corn or corn stalks. 

Timothy is also a good grass for fattening purposes and no 
better pasture can be found than one composed of several grasses 
and legumes, such as bluegrass, timothy, rye grass, and the clovers. 

Rape makes a very heavy growth in fertile soil if there is plenty 
of moisture and light, and when combined with grass it will fatten 
sheep or lambs without the use of any ether feed. In Missouri a 

387 



388 FEEDING IN THE FIELD 

number of feeders have finished lambs at very low cost by running 
them on bluegrass and in corn fields sown to rape and cowpeas. 
They purchase the lambs early in the autumn and turn them first 
on the bluegrass and cowpeas. The cowpeas are fed first because the 
leaves drop after the first frost. After they are gone, the lambs 
alternate between the bluegrass and the rape. By the time the 
greater part of the rape is consumed the lambs are fat enough to 
send to market. If the corn stands up well, the lambs eat very little 
of it; hence the bluegrass, cowpeas, and rape produce practically all 
of the gains. 

Kape is of most value in September and October, but it can be 
pastured well up into the winter, provided the sheep and lambs have 
become accustomed to it before it freezes. At first it should be 
pastured for only an hour or two in the middle of the day when it 
is dry, but it does not take more than a week or ten days to get the 
animals accustomed to it so that they can feed upon it at will. 

Three generally practiced ways of gettiiig rajie for fall fattening 
are as follows: First, by seediii'^' it in the normal way as ilie sole crop 
in the ground ; second, by sowing it with oats at the rate of two 
})Ounds of seed to the acre ; and, third, by seeding it at the rate of 
al)Out three pounds per acre in corn at the last cultivation. When 
there is sufficient moisture, rape sown in oats grows rapidly after the 
oats are cut and furnishes feed that is ready to be pastured by the 
first of September. A good growth of rape in corn depends on seed- 
ing early, on the supply of moisture and the density of the corn 
foliage, but if the corn is to be pastured with sheep it usually 
pays to sow rape, for around the edges of the field at least there will 
be a good growth of it which will be large enough for pasturing l)y 
the middle of September or the first of October. 

Corn Fields. — If the corn plants are tall, and if they stand 
well, lambs may run in the corn fields before the corn is husked 
without doing much damage to the corn crop. They feed on the 
lower blades of corn, weeds, and grass, and frequently make good 
gains for several weeks. 

Sheep and lambs are often used to harvest the cora crop. 
Several years ago Baker Brothers, large sheep feeders in Illinois, 
made this a regular practice. They sowed rape in their corn, got 
their lambs in early, and kept them in the fields until practically 
all of the corn was consumed. When the rape was pretty well eaten 
out thev liroke down some of the com stalks in order to encourage 



CORN FIELDS 389 

the lambs to eat the corn. Late in the season all stalks with ears 
lieyond the reach of the lambs were broken down. After the lambs 
were removed from the fields pigs were allowed to gather up what 
corn had been left. Baker Brothers were fairly successful with this 
method of feeding, but they made it their chief business and gave 
close attention to their Iambs. They drove them out of the fields 
each evening and kept them in lots or in pastures at night where 
they had access to salt and water. As the lambs became fat they 
were sorted out and shipped. The unfinished ones that were left 
after all of the corn in the fields was consumed were placed in dry 
lots and fed until they were fat (Fig. 320). 

Another Illinois feeder, G. P'iroved, has successfully harvested 
corn with sheep. He begins pasturing the corn fields, which are 




Fia. 220. — All tliat was left of an ear of rorn and a corn stalk after the sheep were through 

with them. 

seeded to rape, about the middle of September, l)ut at first he 
gives the animals access to approximately half the area that will be 
required to fatten them. He turns them in on the second half 
before the supply of feed in the first half becomes so low that the 
sheep or lambs have to hunt for feed. He keeps close watch over 
the su])ply of roughage and endeavors to have pastures that can be 
used at the time the corn is being consumed. When the supply of 
roughage seems to be running low, the animals are given all the 
hay they want. In fact, the successful harvesting of corn depends 
on having plenty of roughage in the form of grass, forage and hay. 
The Fauts Brothers, successful feeders in Indiana, follow the 
practice of seeding soybeans in the corn and harvesting both the 
corn and the beans with lambs. They have been so successful with 



390 FEEDING IN THE FIELD 

this method of feeding that their operations have received wide 
notice in the agricultural press. 

Com Stalks. — All corn gatherers leave some corn. This, to- 
gether with the dry blades on the stalks, makes good feed for sheep 
and lambs for a time. Stalks are of greatest value as sheep feed in 
comparatively dry autumn and winter seasons. Wet weather de- 
teriorates their feeding value and the mud in the fields is hard on the 
feet of the animals. 

General Suggestions for Feeding in Fields. — ^Those who feed 
their sheep in fields should observe the following suggestions : First, 
inspect the sheep or lambs each day. Watch closely for bloat, scours, 
and lameness. Second, see that the animals have access to salt and the 
best of water each day. Third, do not force the sheep or lambs to 
eat the feed in a certain field too closely. It is better to allow them 
a new field and to let them pick over the old field at will. They 
will clean it up in time. Fourth, do not allow them to run at will 
on corn stalks when there is a deep snow. They will search for 
corn and neglect to eat roughage. Fifth, avoid a great deal of driv- 
ing, for it is much more detrimental to gains than allowing the 
animals to take exercise at will. 

Gains. — The gains which sheep and lambs make in the fields 
will vary with the nature of the feed. They sometimes lose instead 
of gaining in weight. One should have feed of such a nature that 
the gain will be from 6 to 10 pounds per head per month. 

Shifting to the Dry Lot. — Some feed ought to be given in the 
dry lot before the feeds in the fields are exhausted. Otherwise, the 
sheep or lambs miay go back in condition before the feed in the 
fields is gone. Feeding ear corn on bluegrass is a good start toward 
the transition from fields to dry lot. If the shift is made at the right 
time one will find that the gains made on very cheap feeds in the 
fields will materially reduce the cost of gains and hence make the 
feeding operation more profitable. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the usefulness of grass to the feeder. 

2. Of what value is rape in the corn belt? 

3. Is it advisable to turn sheep and lambs in the corn field before the coin 

is harvested? 

4. When should corn stalks be pastured? 

5. How much gain can be expected from field feeding? 

6. Review treatment for bloat, Chapter XXXIII. 

7. Review the discussion on forage crops, Chapter XXXITI. 



PART VI 

SHEEP MANAGEMENT ON THE RANGES IN 
THE WESTERN STATES 



CTTAPTER XLI 
NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 

Nature of the Range. — The sheep ranges of the West are often 
arranged in three geographical groups as follows: (1) the south- 
western ranges of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado; 
{2) the ranges of California; and (3) the northwestern ranges of 
Wyoming, ]\Iontana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Washington, and Oregon. 
These groups differ most in climate, but they are also somewhat 
different in the methods employed in raising sheep and in the quality 
of their mutton and wool products. 

Types of Land Utilized as Range. — The unenclosed types of 
lands over which sheep are herded are plains, foothills, and moun- 
tains. In order to have ideal conditions all three types of range 
should be available. Plains serve as an excellent winter range, but 
in summer they are too hot and too dry. Mountains furnish ideal 
range in summer because they are cool, well supplied with water, 
and comparatively luxuriant in plant and shrub growtlis, but with 
the exception of a few places in the southwest, they cannot be used 
in winter because of severe snowstorms. Foothills are located 
between the summer and the winter range and hence furnish feed 
during spring and fall. On each type of range, three to fifteen 
acres are required for one sheep. 

Plains. — In practically every state in the West there are vast 
Ktretches of arid and semi-arid plains which present a monotonous 
picture of sage and sand. To the person accustomed to running 
sheep on luxuriant pastures, these plains would seem entirely inade- 
quate, for as a rule, tbe edible plants and shrubs are small and 
thinly distributed on the ground. The scanty growth on which 
the sheep feed, however, has the power to produce growth and fat 
to a degree which always surprises those who have had no experience 
with it. The sheep grazing over a large area in the course of a day 
nip off a grass blade or a weed here and there, or trim an occasional 
palatable shrub, but they come to the bedding ground at nightfall 
with a fairly well-satisfied ap])etite (Fig. 221). 

Foothills and Mountains. — As a rule the feed in the foothills 
and mountains is more luxuriant and succulent than that on the 

393 



394 MATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 




OWNERSHIP OF THE RANGE 395 

plains because there is more iiiuisture. 'i'liere is a greater variety 
of feed; hence, foothill and mountain districts are more suitable 
for growing and fattening lambs than the plains. In fact, lambs 
are almost never sold for mutton directly from the plains while 
those grown on the best mountain ranges frequently attain suitable 
condition and weight for slaughter when only four and live months 
of age (Figs. 222 and 223). 

Cultivated Areas. — In a few regions cultivated areas are utilized 
as sheep range. In California, alfalfa fields, wheat stubble, and 
even vineyards, serve for a part of the year as feeding grounds. 
After the last crop of grapes has been harvested for the year in 
the great vineyards around Hauford and Fresno, sheep are turned 
in to feed on the leaves. On the whole this practice is regarded 
as beneficial to the vines, for the sheep consume the thrips, little 
insects that would do a great deal of damage later through their 
attacks on the new foliage (Fig. 224). 

In many places the winter range is supplemented by harvested 
crops. There are two reasons for this practice: First, there are 
storm periods during which the snow is so deep that the sheep can 
not get to the feed on the range; and second, owners frequently 
do not have enough winter range to carry their sheep. In recent 
years, carloads of corn from Kansas and Nebraska have been sold 
for winter feed to the sheepmen on the eastern slope of the Eockies, 
and now cottonseed cake is becoming so popular that in various 
places in the northern part of the Rocky Mountains it has almost 
entirely replaced corn. Alfalfa hay is used extensively in Washing- 
ton, Oregon, Montana. Idaho, Utah. Wyoming, and Colorado to 
supplement the winter range (Fig. ^25). 

Ownership of the Range. — The ranges consist of public do- 
main, National Forest, Indian reservations, reclamation lands, state 
lands, and lands owned by corporations and by private individuals. 
The only free land is the public domain. Practically all of this con- 
sists of plains or winter range, as nearly all of the foothills and 
mountains not owned by private individuals and by corporations 
are included in the National Forest. 

The National Forest is under the control of the Department of 
Aofriculture and is in the direct charge of the Forest Service. 
In all cases where sheep are allowed to graze on it, a definite allot- 
ment is made to the owners and a charge per head fixed for a speci- 
fied period of grazing. For example, an owner with 5000 ewes 



396 



NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 




OWNERSHIP OF THE RANGE 



397 




398 



NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 



and their laml3s may be charged eight cents per ewe on a definite 
allotment which he may use from June 15 to November 1. To a 
certain extent the rate charged depends on the quality of feed on 
llic allotment and the length of time it may be used. 

Fig. 224. 





Fig. 225. 

Fio 224 -LambB in clover in Oregon. Here and there in the West a more intensive 
method^th^a. h_^.ling^oj^the^open^ra^^^^^^ -ound with corn, cottonseed 

cake and hay. 

In every state of the range country, all sections of land bearing 
the survey numbers 16 and 36 are at the disposal of the common- 
wealth. They are often leased to sheepmen, the price depending 
on the location and the quality of feed growing on them. As a rule 
tlie sheepmen have little to say in adjusting rentals on these lands 
because thev are so distributed among the other lands they propose 



BREEDING OF THE SHEEP ON THE RANGE 399 

to use that they are obliged to pay the ])rice asked, whether or not 
it is reasonable. 

Railway Land Grants. — When the various railways were pro- 
jected through the West, the companies received encouragement 
from the Federal Government in the form of great land grants 
which extended in alternate sections for 20 miles or more on cither 
side of their roads. Although much of the land in these grants 
has been disposed of, the railway companies still own large areas 
which are leased for grazing purposes. Should the alternate sec- 
tions still be public domain the ])erson leasing from the railroad 
will have twice as much land as he leases, but he can make little 
use of fences for it is unlawful to fence public domain. In recent 
years, however, many of the intervening sections have been occupied 
by homesteaders who, as a rule, do not care to rent their land for 
pasture; this makes the railroad' land inconvenient to use. 

Other Lands. — In addition to the above there are certain lands 
in the control of the National Reclamation Service and there are the 
lands in the various Indian reservations which may be leased for 
grazing; and finally, there are lands owned by private citizens. In 
the Southwest, and in New Mexico particularly, there are large 
tracts of land that were granted to private individuals at an early 
time by the Government of Si)ain. A nnniber of these tracts are 
leased for grazing jiurjjoses. In many cases the sheepmen own con- 
siderable tracts of land. Usually these tracts are strategically 
located so that the owner may control extensive lands which he 
does not own. 

Cost of Leases. — Ftom the foregoing it is clear that a sheep- 
man may be so located that he must have his pockets full of leases 
and permits before he can operate. The cost of leases on land 
grants, reclamation lands, reservations, and private lands ranges 
from two and one-half cents to twenty-five cents per acre per year. 
This applies to wild range or uncultivated lands. Cultivated lands 
rent at much higher prices and; according somewhat to the urgency 
of the sheep owner's need of them. Permits in the National Forest 
cost from six to fourteen cents per sheep per season. At present 
the tendency is to increase the rates of rent for sheep on all types 
of range. 

Breeding of the Sheep on the Range. — In general, range sheep 
should be of a type that produce both mutton and wool of good 
market quality under range conditions ; they should be hardy, that 



400 • NATURE OF THE RANGE AND OF THE SHEEP 

is, they should be able to thrive when kept in large flocks or bands, 
and they should have the habit of staying close together while 
grazing. 

Breeds for Range. — Until a few years ago range breeding ewes 
were largely or altogether of Merino parentage, but at present 
there is a disposition greatly to reduce the percentage of Merino 
blood in breeding stock and a belief is growing that it ought to be 
dispensed with in some regions. The Merino has been popular 
l)ecause it is hardy and better adapted to herding than any other 
breed. Its wool, being dense and oily, has been better than that of 
any other breed for withstanding alkali dust and the penetrating 
dryness of a senii-arid climate. The recent decline in the popular- 
ity of Merino blood is traceable to a number of factors. Methods 
of handling sheep in many parts of the West have improved so 
much that the extreme hardiness, characteristic of the Merino, is 
no longer indispensable. The high prices paid for lambs during 
the past five years have stimulated the desire to produce as much 
mutton as possible from a given number of ewes. This has given 
rise to a demand for rather large, strong, deep milking ewes, capable 
of raising a large percentage of laml)s and growing them rapidly. 
Trials with lambs carrying a preponderance of mutton blood have 
shown that they make rapid gains and attain heavy weights on 
mountain range by the time they are old enough to wean. In 
addition to all of these influences, the conditions surrounding the 
sheep business have been such as to thoroughly arouse the interest 
of sheepmen in such matters as breeding, and this interest of itself 
has had some bearing on changes in breeding. 

At this time it is difficult to predict how much change Avill 
ultimately be made in the breeding of range sheep. Aside from 
the herding qualities which all range sheep must have, the kind 
of sheep wanted is a type that represents the most efl^ective com- 
bination of mutton and wool. It has been found that an excellent 
market lamb can be produced by crossing a pure-bred mutton ram 
on a grade Merino ewe, but the trouble with this practice is that 
it makes no provision for the future supply of the ewe stock. It 
was once possible for the mutton lamb raisers to renew their breed- 
ing ewes from regions that were not well adapted or located for 
raising lambs for the market, but very few such regions exist at 
the present time. 

So long as sheep are herded on open ranges, it is improbable that 
Merino blood will be dispensed with. The percentage of it in bands 



QUESTIONS 401 

of breeding ewes may be reduced or the type may be changed so 
as to suit more nearly the needs of range sheepmen, but the Merino 
has characteristics which are too valuable to justify anyone in 
supposing that its blood will be wholly discarded. 

Mutton Breeds for Range, — Of the various mutton breeds that 
have been used in the West, the Cotswolds, Lincolns, and Hamp- 
shires seem to have given best results. The cross between the 
longwools (Cotswolds and Lincolns) and Merinos makes a very 
good sheep for both mutton and wool. The fleece is long and 
heavy and does not pull out badly when the sheep graze on brushy 
range, x^t present the Hampshire is very po]:»ular because of its 
ability to produce a big, strong lamb that is ready to market as 
mutton at weaning time. Shropshires are to be found in large 
numbers in Colorado, New Mexico, and California. Romney ]\Iarsh 
and Corriedales have been imported from New Zealand and 
Australia, and are now undergoing trial. 

The Rambouillet is hy far the most popular of the various 
Merino breeds. 

Sheep of All Classes. — Breeding ewes, yearlings, rams, wethers, 
and laml)s may be found on the ranges, but ewes and lambs lead in 
numbers and importance. After they are five years old ewes begin 
to decline in wool production and they are usually drafted at this 
age and sent to market where they are disposed of as mutton, or 
for breeding or feeding purposes. In a few regions, however, they 
are retained until they are seven or eight years old. ^Vl^en from 
four to six months of age, the lambs are sent to market, where the 
fat ones are slaughtered for mutton while those in thin condition 
are sent to farms and feed lots to be fattened. Yearlings that arc 
not intended for breeding on the range are no longer produced in 
large numbers. They are grown by those who are not in a position 
to make their lambs fat enough to sell well when four to six months 
old. In a very few regions wethers are kept for their wool produc' 
and for the growth they make, but they should be marketed liefore 
they are five years old as they become coarse and decline in condition 
after that age. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Classify geograpliically tlie three general divisions of the range country. 

2. What are the types of land utilized as range? Discuss each. , 

3. Who claims ownership of the range country? How leased? 

4. What distinct characteristics do range sheep possess? 

5. At what age do rangenien usually l)egin to cull tlieir ewes? 

26 



CHAPTER XLII 

MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON RANGES IN THE 

WEST 

Basis of Management. — The management of sheep on the 
ranges of the West is based on the handling of a band* which varies 
in size from 1200 to 3000 animals, depending on the nature of 
the range and the kind of sheep. For instance, if the grazing has 
to be conducted over narrow stretches of land part of the time, 
the band has to be comparatively small, for if it is not, the sheep 
in the rear will find very little to eat. Ewes and lambs have to be 
kept in small bands, because the lambs are inclined to stray out 
where predatory animals may get them, and caring for a very large 
band of them requires more work than the average herder can do. 
It is customary to place 1250 ewes and their lambs in one band. 
In total this amounts to a considerable number, but as a rule 
sheepmen regard bands of ewes with their lambs as being small. 

Large bands are composed of dry sheep, that is sheep not suck- 
ling lambs. After the lambs have been weaned and the sheep placed 
on the winter range, the bands are usually of good size, provided 
tlie range is extensive and narrow stretches of grazing can be 
avoided. Under such conditions as many as ;?500 sheep can be 
jdared in a band. 

Labor Required to Handle a Band of Sheep. — Aside from 
the lambing and shearing periods, only two men, a " herder " and 
a " camp-tender," are required to manage a band. 

The Herder. — It is the duty of the herder to care for the sheep. 
If he is faithful and efficient, he is up and after them as soon as 
they begin to move in the morning, which is usually at daybreak. 
For two or three hours he guards and guides them or until they 
are ready to lie down and to cliew the cud. He takes this oppor- 
tunity to prepare his breakfast unless he arose early enough to eat 
before his sheep started from their bedding ground. Really the 
latter is a better procedure, for l)y carrying his lunch with him, 
he can be near his sheep throughout the day. The herder plans 
402 



THE CAMP TENDER 403 

to have his sheep back to the camp and bedding ground by night- 
fall, so when they have gone such a distance out that it will require 
the remainder of tlie day to return, he turns them about and allows 
them to take a leisurely pace characteristic of contented grazing. 
A good herder never rushes his sheep to camp and beds tiiem dowii 
early for he knows that they will do better it' given their time to 
come in, and also that they will not move out so early in the 
morning. During manorial days in England, it was a common 
saying that lame men were the best shepherds. So, too, the quiet, 
patient type of herder on the westeni ranges outclasses the nervous 
irascible type. 

Although caring for the shee]) is the chief duty of the herder, 
he also has part responsibility in the preparation of food for him- 
self and the camp-tender. ^lany herders are adept in the cooking 
and baking of the plainer forms of food, such as l)read, meat, 
I)()tatoes, Itcans, and dried fruit. 

The camp-tender's duties consist in kee])ing the camj) provided 
with food and other necessities for himself and the herder, feed 
for the horses or burros, and salt for the sheep. He also attends 
to moving camp, assists in the cooking, and counts the sheep. As 
camp-mover he assumes considerable responsibility, as he must first 
select a camp site, which should be located where the feed is 
good. His count of the sheep is more nearly like an estimate 
than an actual count. It is made by counting the black or partially 
black sheep, of which there are a few in every band, and since 
each sheep maintains about the same position in the band day after 
day, the camp-tender merely ascertains whether all of the blaek 
sheep are present and whether their position in the band seems 
normal. 

Of the two, herder and camp-tender, the latter has the more 
responsibility, and usually he receives more pay. When tlie sheep 
go to the mountains for the summer, the camp-tender is often 
given the privilege of drawing checks on the owner's account to 
pay for whatever is needed. 

Should the owner have several bands of sheep on an extensive, 
undivided range, one camp-tender may be suflicient for as many 
as three bands. Under such conditions, a comparatively large store 
of provisions is kept at ranch headquarters, hence the distance of 
hauling is not very great. Usually, too, these conditions exist on 



404 



MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 



the plains, where hauling is much less difficult than in the foothills 
and mountains (Fig. 22G). 

Kind of Men Employed as Herders and Camp-Tenders. — 

On the southwestern ranges nearly all herders and camp-tenders 
are Mexicans. It takes a larger numher of them to handle a given 
numher of sheep than it does of other types of laborers and they 
do not stick continuously to herding for more than three or four 
months at a time, hut while tlicy are in the employ of the randi. 




Fig. 226. — Meal time in summer sheep camp in the mountains. 



Ihey can, as a rule, l)e depended upon to stay with the sheep. 
Numerous cases have l)een cited of Mexican herders having lost 
their lives through Faithfully caring for their sheep in severe storms. 

Mexican herders receive lower pay and they do not require so 
large an expenditure for provisions as do other types of herders. 
Their demands for provisions, however, depend somewhat on 
\vhether they are working for Mexicans, Spaniards, or x\ngIo- 
Saxons. Oftentimes the Mexican employer can keep a man on 
sixty per cent of what the same man would demand of an Anglo- 
Saxon employer. 

The followins: tahulation shows the supplies which the Golden- 
berg ranch of Corona, New Mexico, furnished to two men every 
fifteen days in the yenv 1011. and the cost of the same. Of course, 
the cost of these provisions are now much greater. 



KIND OF MEN EMPLOYED 405 

Article Amount Cost 

Colleo ti lbs. $0.90 

Beans 15 lbs. 1.13 

Sugar 5 lbs. .32 

Flour 50 lbs. l.'JO 

Bacon 15 lbs. 2.25 

Potatoes 25 lbs. .03 

Onions S lbs. .40 

Fruit 5 lbs. .50 

Rice 5 lbs. .20 

Soda 1 lb. .10 

Salt 2 lbs. .05 

Chili 1 lb. .30 

Lard 5. lbs. .05 

Syrup y, gal. .30 

Kerosenr Vn gal. .10 

Soap 1 bar .05 

Matclu's 1 box .05 

Total $9.83 

On this particular ranch, herders aud tenders were not permitted 
to kill slieep for consumption in camp, as is customary on many 
ranches in all parts of the West, but instead they were furnished 
with mutton from ranch headquarters whenever they wished it. 
Taken as a whole throughout the West, it requires about two mut- 
tons per man per month. In the Southwest fewer are required 
tlian in the Northwest because the ]\Iexican herder seldom keeps 
a dog. ]\Iany Mexican herders prefer goat meat to mutton; hence it 
is common for a few goats to be seen witli each band of shee]:). 

The herders and camp-tenders in California are either Span- 
ish and French Basques, or men of Anglo-Saxon blood. Basque 
herders are reputed for their efficiency and many of them have risen 
from the position of wage earner to that of proprietor. In this 
state it is customary for camp-tenders to receive consideral)ly hi'i'her 
wages than herders. While the cost of wages and provisions per man 
is from 35 to 40 per cent grenter than in the Southwest, the cost 
per 1000 sheep is perhaps less, because the number of sheep handled 
by one man is considerably greater. 

The herders and camp-tenders on the northwestern ranges 
are mainly of Anglo-Saxon stock. As a rule they receive much 
higher wages than are paid in the Southwest and their provisions 
cost a great deal more. Articles of food are supplied to the sheep 



406 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 

camps of the Northwest which are probably unknown in the 
majority of camps in the Southwest. Some of these articles are 
butter, eggs, lioney, canned goods such as peas, beans, high-grade 
fruits, and maple syrup. It is a common saying, more or less 
seriously intended, that the bills of fare in the sheep camps of the 
Northwest are of better quality and of greater variety than those 
in the best hotels in the larger cities of that region. 

Labor Required to Handle a Band of Sheep in Shearing and 
Lambing Seasons. — Shearing is always done at so much per head 
by parties who make it a business. The cost varies a great deal, 
according to the region in which the shearing is done and the kind 
of sheep to be shorn. Extra charge is made for sheep having many 
wrinkles in the skin and double charges are usually made for 
shearing rams. In 1911 the cost of shearing, including all expense, 
ranged from 8 to 18 cents per head. The cost now ranges from 
12 to 37 cents or even more. 

Lambing extends over a period of from -t to 6 weeks. The 
amount of labor required to lamb a band of 1250 ewes depends 
both on the efficiency of the laborers and on the conditions under 
which the lambing is conducted. The minimum number required is 
two and the maximum ten. During the lambing period the rate 
of wages is higher than for the remainder of the year for both 
regular .and special employees because at that time laborers are 
scarce and the nature of the work requires extra hours. 

Ranch Headquarters are maintained in cases where the hold- 
ings of sheep are large, and various other laborers aside from 
herders and camp-tenders are required for such tasks as making hay, 
seeing after watering places, cooking, etc. Then, too, a superin- 
tendent is usually required for a large holding. 

Although the scale of wages is hardly less than thirty per cent 
higher at the present time, the report made by the Tariff Board 
in 1911 showing the wages per month, including board, paid in 
the different western states to the various employees connected with 
sheep Tanching is, nevertheless, of interest. 

Since the number of sheep to one man is also indicated in 
the tabulation, one sees that what may be comparatively cheap 
labor when based on per man per month is dear when based on 
the number of sheep one man is able to handle. The conditions under 
which sheep herders and camp-tenders live undoubtedly add to tlie 
cost of labor, for their nomadic living causes a great deal of waste, 
and their type of living attracts only a few peculiar types of mind. 



EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR A BAND OF SHEEP 407 

Camp Expenses, per Month. 



Number 

of sheep 

to one man 



Arizona 

California . . . 
Colorado . . . . 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

Oregon 

Utah 

Washington . 
Wyoming . . . 
The region . . 



Superin- 


Camp- 


Herders 


Extra 


tendent 


tenders 


labor 


$84.80 


$50.38 


$49.18 


$49.38 


94.05 


68.75 


54.18 


55.13 


76.24 


45.83 


41.44 


37.20 


101.98 


69.03 


66.66 


65.70 


102.22 


68.39 


62.70 


62.72 


111.50 


64.93 


59.42 


63.02 


60.21 


39.61 


33.03 


32.72 


85.52 


62.52 


58.04 


57.87 


89.08 


63.06 


64.34 


62.13 


89.60 


61.33 


60.85 


57.54 


113.80 


69.00 


64.64 


66.61 


90.72 


59.82 


52.40 


50.3/ 



867 
1335 

897 
1359 
1788 
1088 

755 
1418 
1247 
1100 
1112 
1119 



Equipment Required for a Band of Sheep. — riic c(iuii)ineiit 
necessary for haiidliiig a band of sheep may he divided into three 
classes as follows: winter, summer, and lambing equipment. Jn 
some places, particularly in the Southwest, topography of the sum- 
mer and winter range is so nearly alike that the same equipment 
will serve for both. 

In winter when the sheep are on the plains, the equipment 
centers ahout the sheep wagon, which is a large, strongly-built 
vehicle with a canopy top. It has to be capacious, for it serves 
as a dwelling for two men, and it must be strong in ordter to witli- 
stand the strain incident to travelling over rough ground. It ])r()- 
vides room for a bed, a stove used both for cooking and heating, 
a complete kit of the utensils necessary for cooking and eating, and 
a store of food for the men, and grain for the horses. Two good 
horses of draft type are needed to draw the wagon and they must 
be fitted with good strong harness (Fig. 237). 

In addition to the horses for the wagon there must be at least 
one saddle horse which a camp-tendler uses in various ways. Fre- 
quently two light horses and a spring wagon form a part of the 
equipment. With this light wagon the camp-tender goes for 
provisions for the camp. 

The cost ^ of a fully equipped sheep wagon, which will wear from 
four to seven years according to the treatment it receives and the 
nature of the ground over which it is drawn, is approximately 
$350. The teams used on these wagons cost from $400 to $600 



Costs obtained before the United States entered the war. 



408 



MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 



and they wear about as long as dlo horses at other types of draft 
work. As a rule the horses used under saddle or at light wagons 
cost from $80 to $125 and they wear out in three or four years. 
Saddles vary in cost from $35 to $60, and light wagons cost approxi- 
mately $135. Saddles should last for a number of years, but light 
wagons are junk in two or three years. Thus one sees that the cost 




Fig 227.— Camp wagons, which are really dwellings on wheels, are used on the plains 

in wintertime. 




1<IG 228 —Trailing to the mountains in California where burros and horses must 
be used to carry supplies because the surface is too rough for wagons. 

of equipment for handling a band of sheep in winter is at least 
$800 and often considerably more. 

In summer when the sheep are in the mountains, equipment 
and stores have to be carried on pack horses or burros because the 
travelling is too rough for wagons (Fig. 328) . 



EXTRA EQUIPMENT NEEDED AT TIMES 409 

If burros are used, as is the case in many parts of the Southwest 
and in California, five are required for each band of sheep. Tliree 
horses, two to be used as pack animals and the other as a saddle 
horse, are needed with each band. The pack horses carry the 
equipment and stores, which consist of a tent, blankets, a cooking 
and an eating outfit and food supplies. Large quantities of the 
latter can not be carried so the camp-tender has to make frequent 
excursions with his pack horses to a base of supplies. The follow- 
ing enumerates the articles of equipment necessary for a summer 
camp, their approximate cost, and period of wear: 

Article Cost Wear 

3 horses $4.50 3 years 

1 saddle 40 5 years 

2 |)ack saddles 20 . 1 season 

1 tent 16 1 season 

4 pairs of blankets 40 2 seasons 

3 sets of hobbles 6 2 seasons 

Cooking and eating outfit IG 2 seasons 



The above equipment does not serve for as many sheep as 
the winter sheep wagon because summer bands are usually smaller 
than winter bands. 

Extra Equipment Needed at Times. — First of all, there is 
extra equipment in the way of tents, blankets, and cooking utensils 
for the extra help in lambing time. More than the usual number 
of hoTses are needed for carrying or hauling provisions or perha|)s 
for hauling water. Often extra wagons are needed for various 
purposes. Many lanterns must he on hand to guide the worker's 
at night and to scare away predatory animals, (runs and ammuni- 
tion are also needed to guard against coyotes and other animals from 
preying on the young lambs. In some places there must be a 
plentiful supply of lambing tents to house ewes and their new-born 
lambs from the cold and storms, or buildings have to be constructed 
especially for the lambing season. 

The equipment in lambing varies so much under different con- 
ditions that it is almost impossil)le to give a concrete illustration 
of its cost. Generally it takes on the form of extras to the regular 
equipment, although in various places equipment such as barns and 
sheds is employed which is used only during the lambing period. 



410 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 

Fall and Winter Management. — Fall and winter management 
may be said to begin when the sheep are moved from the mountains 
to the plains, an event which usually takes place in tlie month of 
October. This is no small task, as often the distance is great and 
the range or feed along the trail is exceedingly limited. In many 
cases the trails have been closed and the transfer has to be made 
by rail. 

At the time the transfer is made surplus stock, such as lambs, 
cast ewes, yearlings, and wethers are disposed of at shipping points 
between the summer and the winter range. Upon reaching the 
plains, the lambs and wethers, should there be any retained, are 
separated from the ewes preparatory to the breeding season. If 
advisable, they may all be placed together after the breeding season 
has closed. 

The Breeding Season. — The breeding season occurs in either. 
November or December on most ranges, although earlier breeding 
than this is now common in Idaho, Washington, and California. 
Eams are placed with the ewes at the rate of one and one-half to 
three to every 100 for a period of four weeks. This period of service 
makes the period of actual lambing extend over five weeks. The 
objects in thus limiting the breeding season are to keep the lambing 
period from extending over too great a time and to have all the 
lambs of about the same age. 

Care of Rams. — Since the breeding season is a strenuous period 
for the rams (rams are always called bucks in the West) many 
owners practice feeding them liberally with grain in order to keep 
them in fairly good condition and vigor. Often when the ewes are 
grazing across an extensive plain the rams are shipped to them and 
when the breeding season is over, shipped back to ranch headquarters. 

Either very cold or very dry weather seems to affect the ability 
of rams adversely for service. Sheepmen in eastern Colorado have 
observed that rams will desert the ewes in very cold weather and 
stand about the corrals in search of feed. 

Men who have used both Merino and mutton-bred rams claim 
that the latter are the more vigorous in breeding season and capable 
of more service. Some have maintained that it takes only half as 
many of them as Merinos for a definite number of ewes. 

Since rams on the western ranges live under hard conditions 
they are useful in service for only about three years. Except in 
breeding season, they are run in what are known as buck bands. 



SHEARING 411 

Frequently owners combine their buck flocks and put them in the 
care of a herder who finds range for them at so much per head per 
month or for the season. Some owners merely let them run at large 
without a herder, and when left to themselves, the rate of loss 
among them is very large. Then, too, range rams fight amongst 
themselves a great deal and this is a source of depreciation and loss. 

Winter Management. — After the breeding season winter man- 
agement is chiefly a matter oi herding. In herding on extensive 
plains which can be used only in winter when snows furnish water, 
hands of ewes go as far out as 800 miles, making a total distance of 
400 miles by the time they have returned to the home ranch. In 
most ])laces, however, the winter range is not so extensive. The 
supply of feed may be so limited, or the periods of snowstorms so 
bad, that hay and grain have to l)e fed part of the time. In fact, 
shelled corn and cotton-seed cake are hauled out on the plains in 
many regions and stored so that they will be available when needed. 
At the present time there are various ways of supplementing the 
winter range and it is possible to carry bands of sheep through on 
areas which years ago would have been considered entirely in- 
adequate. Alfalfa and grain, such as barley, oats, and wheat, are 
available in regions where formerly nothing but the wild range was 
to be had. 

Shearing, — Shearing is an event which frequently marks the 
transition from winter to spring management and often precedes 
the lambing period. As stated elsewhere, the shearing is done by 
men who make it a profession. Early in March they are busy in 
Arizona and New Mexico, and they finish in Montana late in July. 
The season is then over except for a little fall work in California 
and some winter shearing in the large accumulating and feeding 
stations trilnitary to the markets from the West. 

Shearing camps, equipped with shearing pens, corrals and sack- 
ing frames or balers are established at places usually located on 
the trail between winter and summer range. Whenever possible 
they are located beside a railroad so that the wool may be loaded in 
cars without a long haul in wagons. The sheep are driven into the 
shearing camj) where they are sheared and made ready to return to 
the range in a few hours if the plant is fairly large and well- 
equipped. Ovniers having several bands to shear endeavor to have 
but one band at a time in the shearing corrals, for by handling in 



412 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 

this way they do not have to feed on costly feeds while in the 
shearing camp. 

Both hand and machine shearing are practiced. The latter is 
the more rapid, saves more wool, and perhaps causes fewer cuts in 
the skin of the sheep, hut apparently there are good reasons for 
supposing that some regions will never adopt it. There are places 
where a sudden drop in temperature is likely to occur shortly after 
shearing. Unless thick combs are used machine shearing takes the 
wool entirely too close to enable the sheep to go through such 
periods without injury. In some other places the hot sun will 
blister the skin if the wool is removed by machines equipped with 
thin combs. 

In practically all shearing camps, helpers called " wranglers " 
drive the sheep into small pens bordering the shearing floor, so that 
by merely turning about the shearers find the sheep within their 
reach. If machines are used the fleeces are tied and the shearing 
floor kept clean by laborers called " tyers " and sweepers. Hence, 
all the shearers have to do is to remove the fleece, but in camps 
where hand shearing is done it is common for the shearers to tie the 
fleeces. In such camps there is seldom a common shearing floor, 
but a series of pens in which half of the ground space is floored. The 
shearing is done on the floored part while the sheep awaiting shear- 
ing stand on the unfloored part. After the fleeces are tied they are 
pitched out of the pens into a long, flat-bottom trough, thirty inches 
wide, from which they are gathered and sacked. 

Hand shearers vary widely as to the number they are able to 
shear in a day. The poorest may not shear more than 50 by be- 
ginning at seven in the morning and ending at five in the evening 
while the best may shear 125 and sometimes more. Expert machine 
shearers will shear 200 sheep in a day. In both hand and machine 
shearing the number of fleeces removed in a definite period of time 
depends on the size of the sheep, the nature of their skins with re- 
spect to wrinkles, and the density- and condition of their wool. It 
takes longer to shear a big, strong ram than it does to shear a ewe of 
ordinary size and it is impossible to remove the fleece from a sheep 
having numerous wrinkles in the skin and extremely dense oily 
wool as quickly as that from a smooth, less oily sheep. For these 
reasons, extra charge is usually made for rams and if a band of sheep 
carries more wrinkles and folds than is common to the region, an 
extra charge is usually made. 



\ 



SHEARERS 



413 



On the vvliole slieaivrs in the West do I'air work, hut long, ugly 
cuts in the skin shoukl be matters of less occurrence than they are. 
Then, too, shearers are too careless in catching their sheep and 
setting them down. In plants having machines, particularly, the 
shearer retains his hold on the shearing shaft and brings his sheep 
down by grasping a hind leg and giving the animal a vicious swing. 
Such handling should not be tolerated and it is no wonder that 
those who j^ractice having their ewes shorn while pregnant do not 
like to place them in plants where machines are used. In a few sheds 
recently constructed according to the general plan used in Australia, 
swiiiging doors between the shearing iloor and the sheep make it 




Fio. 229. — Shearing shed at Bitter Creek, Wyoming, modeled after a type common 

in Australia. 

impossible for the shearer to drag a sheep in by the leg. He must 
]nck it up and carry it in. This clever arrangement of doors should 
be greatly appreciated by sheepmen (Fig. 2^!)). 

Shearers. — C)i)erators of shearing plants often have dilliculty 
with shearers. '1 he shearers lead a more or less nomadic life and 
if they hear of better wages further on in the way of more money 
for each sheep shorn or of easier shearing, they are likely to leave 
the plant before the shearing season is over. The operators have 
l)een forced to protect themselves by requiring the shearers to sign 
a contract which keeps them on the job till the last band of sheep 
contracted for has been through the pens. 

Sheep shearing is hard work and it requires strong men whose 
backs are as untiring as springs of steel. They must be well fed 
and comfortably quartered. Since they live a nomadic life the}' are 
not given to accunudatiiig much, for gambling is a game which ])uts 
tbeir wages in tbe hands of the few wbo are cleverer at it than 
the rest. 



414 



MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 



Marketing Wool. — Getting the wool to market is a task which 
follows soon after shearing. As stated above, whenever possible, 
shearing plants are located alongside railroads in order to avoid a 
long haul to a shipping point, but some shearing must be done in 
the interior, fifty miles or more from the railroad and a long haul is 
involved in getting the wool to a place of shipment. Trains con- 
sisting of several wagons, each loaded high with sacks of wool 
aggregating a ton or more in weight, are formed for this purpose. 
These trains have to go over a great deal of rough ground and it is 
advantageous for the wagons to move in trains rather than to go 
singly because extra teams are needed for the rough places and the 
steep hills. When the haul is a long one, the cost is a large item, for 




In; :':;o - \\ ..1,1 ^?r;i<li'.i, lial.Mi ;inil a \v:u ting shipment from a shearing shcd. 

breakdowns are not uncommon and necessarily the travelling is 
slow (Fig. 330). 

Contracting. — Wool is sold in a number of ways in the West. 
In some years the practice of contracting it at so much per pound 
several weeks or months before it is removed from the sheep's back 
is widespread. A certain amount of money is advanced on the pros- 
pective clip, and sheepmen financially embarrassed find relief by 
selling in this way. There is difference of opinion as to the under- 
lying motives of the large commission firms and manufacturers who 
buy direct from the range, when they contract wool prior to the 
shearing season. These firms, speaking for themselves, say that 
they buy in order to accommodate sheepmen who are badly in need 
of money, while sheepmen and others think they buy because there 
is a strong prospect for a marked advance in the wool market. 

Commission Houses. — Another way of handling the wool is 
to consign it to some eastern commission house immediately after 
the shearing. The house may sell at once or it may hold the ship- 
ment for an indefinite period. Should the consignor desire money, 



J 



COOPERATIVE SELLING 415 

the house will advance a loan upon which interest is charged. With 
many this method of handlino- is unsatisfactory because it has 
speculative features which only add to the numerous uncertainties 
of the sheep business. 

Taken one year with another, the method of marketing most 
prevalent is to sell the wool to agents of dealers' houses and 
manufacturers who first inspect the wool either in the shearing 
camps or in warehouses located at shipping points. As a rule, this 
is about as satisfactory to the grower as any method of selling prac- 
ticed because he can see the whole transaction through and experi- 
ence a feeling of finality alxnit his wool clip in a comparatively 
short period of time. 

Auction Sales. — In a few places auction sales have been con- 
ducted in warehouses located at shipping points. Before sale day 
purchasing agents inspect the wool and turn in sealed bids to the 
proprietor of the warehouse, who opens them on the day of sale in 
the presence of the owner, who passes judgment on them. He may 
reject all of them or he may select a bid which is not the highest 
made on his wool. If he is not present, the proprietor of the ware- 
house follows his instructions relative to probable bids. Immediate 
payment is made by the purchasing agent, who, as a rule, accepts the 
weights taken by the proprietor of the warehouse as he receives the 
wool from the owner. Those concerned with the organization of 
auction sales liad in mind first, the securing of competitive bidding, 
and second, furnishing to owners an opportunity to compare the 
selling merits of their wool. It is doul)tful whether much has ])een 
accomplished through the latter, as owners are inclined to attribute 
differences in prices paid to circumstances wholly aside from the 
differences l)etween the lots of avooI sold. 

Cooperative Selling. — Several years ago a cooperative company 
established warehouses in Chicago and Boston for the purpose of 
securing a square deal in disposing of their wool and also for cut- 
ting down intermediate charges. This company further undertook 
to teach their stockholders better methods of preparation for market, 
even going so far as to grade the wool at the shearing sheds at a 
nominal charge. It has met, as it justly deserves, with a measur- 
able degree of success in its various purposes. The Australian 
methods of o])serving and grading have also been taught by an 
enterprising organization, so that the West is making progress in 
developing an understanding of the value of wool. 



416 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 

Expense of Marketing Wool. — There is a great deal of ex- 
pense involved in preparing and marketing wool in the West. 
Charges for shearing, sacking, storing, and shipping make large 
inroads on the gross receipts. Prior to government control of the 
railroads, the cost of shipping by rail to Boston, based on 100 
pounds, varied from $1.33 to $2.60; the cheapest transcontinental 
rate is on the Pacific Coast, where the railways meet the competition 
of water transportation. It costs more to ship wool to Boston from 
points in the inter-mountain region of the West than it does from 
the interior of Australia by the way of Liverpool. 

Spring and Summer Management. — The Lambing Period. — 
In general, one may say that spring management on the range really 
begins with the lambing period. Careful preparation has to be 
made for lambing, not only in such matters as help and equipment, 
but also in locating and preparing the lambing ground or bed. 

The location should be where feed and water are plentiful. 
This is necessary because a large nmnber of sheep have to be re- 
stricted to a comparatively small area for a considerable length of 
time, and it is also necessary because good feed and water are 
essential in starting the ewes to suckle well soon after the lambs are 
born. In some regions, the Yakima Valley in Washington being 
one, harvested feeds are the chief reliance during lambing. In the 
Southwest it is not uncommon for owners to have to haul water 
five to ten miles and store it in large metal tanks at the lambing 
grounds before lambing begins. Men wlio own large areas often set 
aside tracts for lambing on which they erect buildings or corrals 
and dig wells. An attempt should be made to locate the lambing 
ground where there is natural shelter from cold winds and storms, 
but when this is not possible, artificial protection should be pro- 
vided. Elsewhere mention has been made of tents used for liousing 
ewes with their new-born lambs. In the Northwest, where the 
weather is often cold and stormy in the lambing season, immense 
bams are constructed at heavy cost. In places further south, brush 
and small trees are often cut and arranged so as to provide fairly 
effective protection against cold, chilling winds. Should shelter 
from the cold not be needed there is always need, however, of corrals 
and pens so that ewes and lambs can be sorted from time to time. 

If possible, the lambing grounds should be located where they 
will not draw an unusual number of predatory animals. In many 
regions it is impossible to locate where the attacks of such animals 



RATE OF LAMBING 417 

as coyotes, wolves, bol) cats, mountain lions, and bears will not be a 
serious problem. Young lambs are toothsome morsels to these 
animals, and they will risk a great deal to get them. Owners, think- 
ing that they will gain by getting out where feed is plentiful, some- 
times make the mistake of locating their lambing grounds iu an 
isolated region far away from other lambing bands, and as a result, 
predatory animals from far and near prey upon them. 

As a rule, extra helpers have to be employed in lambing, whose 
sole duty is to guard against the animals that would play havoc 
among the ewes and lambs. They kill as many of these predatory 
])rowlers as they can by shooting, trapping, and placing poisoned 
bait, and they scare them away during the night by firing blank 
cartridges, building fires, and hanging out lanterns. 

Method of Handling. — ^During lambing the method of handling 
consists in dividing the band up into small groups as the ewes lamb, 
and of combining these groups as the lambs grow old enough to 
keep from becoming lost from their mothers when placed in larger 
groups. The smallest groups are the " day drop " and the " night 
drop." That is, the ewes which lamb through the day constitute 
one group and the ewes which lamb at night form another. About 
24 hours after the "night drop" these two groups are combined 
and in 72 to 9G hours this newly-formed group may be combined 
with another made by combining the succeeding day and night 
drops. To make the above clearer, suppose the day and night drops 
of Monday are combined on Wednesday morning and the day and 
night drops of Tuesday, on Thursday morning. Then the two 
groups made by combining the day and night drops of Monday and 
Tuesday may be combined on Friday or Saturday morning. This 
process of combining into larger and larger groups continues accord- 
ing to the judgment of those in charge until the whole band is 
together again and readv to move awav from the lambing grounds 
(Fig. 231). 

Rate of Lambing. — Usually the rate of lambing is greatest dur- 
ing the second or third weeks of the period. Wlien the rate of 
births is at its highest the lambing camp is a very busy place and 
there is seemingly more or less crudeness in the way much of the 
work is done. As a rule, a greater supply of trained laborers would 
save more laml)S and cut down the loss of ewes, but trained laborers 
are very scarce and in many instances it is impossible to get an 
adequate force. In these days when much depends on a successful 
27 



418 



MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 



lambing period most sheepmen do their best to get a large per- 
centage of lambs. Still, in all but a comparatively few regions, a 
large percentage of twins is not wanted because, first, the feed on 
the range is not plentiful enough to permit a ewe to grow two lambs 
well and secondly, one of a pair of twins is likely to become lost 
from its mother through the confusion which necessarily exists in 
the lambing band. Such a lamb becomes a " bummer " and gains 




Fig. 231. — A permanent lambing camp consisting of a wooden frame and canvas roof and 

wails. 

a living by stealing from several ewes. It does not develop well and 
it hinders the growth of those lambs from whose mothers it steals. 
Last Task of Lambing. — Finishing the docking and castrating 
is the last task of the lambing period. All the lambs not docked 
and castrated are gathered together in a corral and handed out to 
operators, who work on them at a rate of speed which varies witli 
the size of the task and the familiarity of the operators with it. A 
skilled operator can keep two men very busy catching lambs for him. 
The testicles and tail are removed in a remarkably short time and 
the lamb is in a large measure saved from the nervous exhaustion 



TRANSFER TO SUMMER RANGE 419 

which results from a slow bungling operation. As a rule, lambs are 
operated upon when they are about fourteen days old. 

Percentage of Lambs. — Immediately after docking a count of 
the tails is made, from which the percentage of lambs is determined. 
'I'his figure depends, however, upon the percentage of ewes that 
lambed as well as upon the success in saving the lambs bom. 
Should there be a 90 per cent crop of lambs, the lambing is con- 
sidered very successful, indeed, for more often it is very much lower. 

The following tabulation shows the investigation of the agents 
of the Tariff Board with respect to the percentage of lambs saved in 
various flocks in the difi^erent western states. The figures are based 
on the total number of ewes of breeding age owned and the number 
of lambs saved up to the time they were old enough to market. 

State PeroentaKe of lambs 

Arizona ry^.S 

California 76.4 

Colorado (il.9 

Idaho 67.2 

Montana 71.9 

Nevada 74.6 

New Mexico 57.7 

Oregon 79.6 

Utah 72.5 

Wasliington 92.5 

Wyoming 62.4 

Dipping. — Before going to the summer range all sheep and 
lambs .should be dijiped in order to prevent the scattering of in- 
fectious skin diseases. Dipping is under the control of the Bureau 
of x\nimal Industry in the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture and is done when the employees of that Bureau consider it 
necessary. 

Transfer to Summer Range. — When lambing and shearing are 
finished it is generally time to move to the summer range. This is 
more tedious and difficult than the transfer from summer to winter 
feeding grounds because the ewes must get enough feed to supply 
the laml)S with milk and the lambs are not strong enough to travel 
!*ast. Oftentimes the country lying between the winter and summer 
range is in the hands of private parties to such extent that unusual 
trouble is experienced in making the transfer. 



420 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 




LOSSES FROM SNOW STORMS 421 

Management on the summer range consists chiefly in keeping 
the sheep niul lambs on good feed and in protecting them from 
predatory animals. It requires faithful and skillful herding to keep 
ewes and their lambs on good feed in the mountains because they 
are run on definite allotments and it is hard regularly to locate 
camp so that feed is always easily accessible. Then, too, the fact 
that the mountains are rough makes it hard to protect sheep, for 
there are numerous canyons and draws in which they can become 
lost and exposed to the attacks of their enemies. 

The outcome of the sheep business as regards profit and loss 
depends in large measure upon how the laml)s develop on the sum- 
mer range. Tn certain regions there is no hope of their becoming 
fat enough or heavy enough to go direct froni tiie range to. the 
markets as mutton. Owners, in such regions, must dispose of 
their laml)s as feeders and manage on a smaller return per 
bead than those wlu) can grow them to nuirketable condition and 
weight. 

It is now ratlier common for lambs to be marketed l)efore the 
summer season closes. In order to get them to market in good con- 
dition it is necessary to drive the ewes along with them to the point 
of shipment and to have a feeding ground nearby so that the lambs 
will have a supply of feed and milk up to the time they are loaded 
on cars. While the shipment is a long one, lambs from the National 
Forests in W^ashington reach the Chicago market in very good con- 
dition and sell as clioice and ]ivime laml)s (Fig. '2'^'l). 

Problems in Both Winter and Summer Management. — The 
report of the Taritl* Board, 1!)11, has an excellent discussion of 
losses, which is as follows : 

" Losses. — The question of losses is one which haunts the west- 
ern sheepman day and night. When the sheep are on the winter 
ranges, he dreads the possibility of a dee]) snow, which will cover up 
the feed and make moving the sheep ditTicult, if not impossible. 
This is particularly true in the Northwest, where, in the winter of 
1010, for example, many sheepmen found their flocks snow-bound 
miles away from feed of any kind. 

" Losses From Snow Storms. — Tn many cases the owners were 
forced to buv hay at unusually high ])rices, have it baled and shipped 
to the nearest railroad point, and then moved out either in wagons 
or packed on horses and mules to where the sheep were, the snow 



422 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 

Fio. 233. 




Fig. 233. — Outside lots arranged so that wagons can drive close to barn to clean it. 
Fig. 234. — Gates in normal position to form outside lots for sheep. Sheep barn, 
University of Illinois. 

being so deep and the road so difficult that wai:;ons could not always 
be used. 

" Others hired teams, and with snowplows a trail was broken 



I 



POISONOUS PLANTS 423 

through the snow for many miles across the rani^e, over whieli the 
starving sheep were carefully driven, some of them so weak that it 
was necessary to pick them up along the trail and haul them on 
sleds to where the hay was placed. 

" In the Southwest, during the same winter, the snow would 
have heen more than w'elcome, for 'there they faced a drought which 
caused heavy losses. The sheep had been moved to the desert ranges, 
as usual, with expectation of lambing there. Neither rain nor snow 
fell, and at the critical time, just as lambing was at hand, the 
owners found they must either move the sheep or lose everything. 
The sheep were worked to the railroad shipping points by means of 
ha}' hauled into the desert, and in some cases water was hauled out 
in tank wagons and given the sheep in troughs from the wagon. In 
this way the animals were moved to ranges where water and feed 
were to be had and their owners were saved from a total loss, 
although the expenses and losses were heavy enough to offset any 
profit on the year's business. 

" During the winter of 1899, owing to deep snows, one New 
Mexico sheep owner lost, of his entire flock of 40,000 sheep, a total 
of 18,000 old sheep, while in the spring of 1909 another New 
Mexico owner lost over 12,000 spring lambs — his entire crop. 

" Lack of Shelter. — A study of the situation and conditions 
frequently shows losses to be due to a lack of shelter on the range. 
A 'norther' sweeps down across the country, and one flock finds 
shelter under a low range of hills or a few scattering cedars, while 
the other, lacking these essentials, drifts into some ravine or dry 
wash, under the sheltering banks of Avhich they find apparent security 
from the storm. But the drifting snow falls into the wash, and the 
sheep are rapidly covered by it, smothering to death before they can 
be moved. Hundreds of sheep are lost every winter in this manner. 

" Poisonous Plants. — Losses from poisonous plants are also 
very fre([uent. On a good range with plenty of feed few sheep are 
lost from such causes, but when the range is over-grazed or the slieej) 
have been driven many miles over sheep trails almost as bare of 
feed as a floor, they will eat greedily plants which they otherwise 
would not touch. 

" Every sheepman in the Rocky Mountain region counts upon a 
certain percentage of losses each year from poisonous plants which 
infest the ranges, and against which there seems to be but little 
protection. 



424 MANAGEMENT ON RANGES IN THE WEST 

" Predatory Animals. — There are also regular losses from pred- 
atory animals, vvliicli are taken into account by all sheepmen. 
Thousands of dollars are annually paid out l)y the State govern- 
ments as well as the sheepmen in bounties for their destruction. 
These bounties, often doubled by the sheep owners, are turned over 
by them to the herders to encourage them in the work of extermina- 
tion, and they are also freely furnished with ammunition and rifles, 
as well as traps and poison. 

" Strays. — Losses by ' cuts ' or small bunches of animals which 
get cut off from the main band and are not discovered by the herders 
are quite frequent. Sometimes the ' stray gathers ' find and return 
part or all of these cuts, but more often they are picked off' one by 
one by the coyotes, wild cats, and other predatory animals which 
continually hang along the flanks of every sheep herd the year round. 

" Coyotes. — ^The coyote is the one great scourge of the western 
sheepman. Unlike other wild animals, the coyote takes kindly to 
civilization and rather flourishes under it. Every year thousands 
upon thousands are killed, and yet there seems to be but little 
reduction in their numbers. To these predatory animals the western 
sheepman pays a heavy annual toll and one which cuts deeply into 
his expected profits. 

" Losses of Young Lambs. — In addition to the losses among 
the old sheep, there is a regular loss among the lambs between the 
time of ^marking up/ which takes place when they are about two 
or three weeks old, and the time of selling. 

" This loss is due to a great variety of causes. Two l)ands are 
sometimes accidentally mixed on the range. In the worry and 
' milling ' attending the separation many lambs lose their mothers, 
and if too young soon die, or if they live are stunted. 

"A good many lambs die from docking operation and many more 
from castrating, 

" Taking the various causes into consideration, it is a con- 
servative estimate to place the loss among the lambs between mark- 
ing-up time and selling time at 10 per cent. That is, if 1000 lambs 
are ' marked up ' in May the owner will do well if, counting every 
lamb in the bunch, whether a ' top'' or a ' cut-back,' he has 900 to 
sell in November." 

The Range Problem. — Another problem which confronts the 
western sheepman is the matter of range. He may have an abund- 
ance of winter range or vice versa, but comparatively few are com- 



QUESTIONS 425 

fortably fixed with respect to both. There are so many in control 
of the range that he has no long time assurance of what will be at 
his disposal. Harvested feeds help a great deal in tiding over a 
shortage of winter range, but there is no such comforting supple- 
ment for a short supply of summer feed. 

Selling Price. — Still another problem for the western sheepman 
lies in the fact that the products he sells are subject to wide fluctua- 
tion in price. Perhaps no other one thing would more nearly place 
him at his ease than a fair degree of stability in the wool and 
mutton markets. A season of soaring prices unbalances his poise 
and he over-reaches himself by investing deeper than he should while 
a season of low ])rices forces him to cash in so that he can not be 
heavily stocked with wool and mutton when prices are high. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat is t1u» size of tlie Imiuls in wliicli sheep are handled on the range? 

2. How niucli labor is refjuired to handle a band of sheep? 

3. What are the duties of tlie herder? 

4. What are the duties of the camp-tender? 

5. Discuss the equipment required in handling sheep in summer and in 

winter on the range. 
0. When is the surplus stock shipped to market? 
7. When are ewes bred and liow long is the breeding season? 
S. How are the rams handled during the l)rpeding season? 
9. Discuss winter iiianagement after tiie breeding season. 

10. How are the ewes handled during the lambing pwiod and until tlie 

lambs are docked and castrated? 

11. How is shearing conducted on the range? 

12. How many sheep can a man shear m a day? 

13. Describe the methods of getting the wool to market. 

14. How is wool sold in the West? 

1.5. What are the problems that confront the sheep owners on the range? 
Discuss each. 



CHAPTER XLIII 

SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS 
DURING THE PAST TWENTY-FIVE YEARS 

Changes in Range Areas. — When sheepmen first went into the 
West there was very little land which was permanently occupied. 
Whenever the obtaining of sufficient range was a problem it con- 
sisted chiefly in competing with cowmen whose rights could be 
defined by no other than that shadowy and shaky term " priority " 
or " previous occupation," yet these rights were defended to the 
point of open conflict and not infrequently at the expense of human 
life. But in the end the sheepmen were bound to gain occupation 
of what was justly their share because it required less capital to 
get into the sheep business than into the cattle business, and hence 
more people were attracted to sheep, and they secured their range 
through the advantage of superior numbers. In time, however, the 
homesteaders, a more numerous class than the sheepmen, appeared 
on the scene, too, and they were bound to triumph in occupying 
land, not only because of superior numbers, but also because they 
were armed with legal rights. 

When homesteaders became numerous the range began to change 
to the disadvantage of sheepmen. The homesteader was a poor man 
whose " claim " was his all, and he resented trespass to the .point 
of demanding payment for damages. He located on the laAds hav- 
ing water, and either forced sheepmen to find new supplies of water 
by digging wells and building reservoirs or to hunt new range. Those 
who thought themselves shrewd enough to hold large sections of 
free range for all time by gaining ownership of the land on which 
natural watering holes were located were in the end defeated by 
homesteaders who settled on all the free lands around the water 
holes. 

After the homesteader began to collect rents and damages, or 
fenced his land entirely away from sheepmen, those in control of 
state and railroad lands were in position to demand rentals for their 
holdings. Then immense National Forests were created which 
resulted in bringing vast areas under the control of the Federal 
426 



ADDED COST OF RANGES 427 

Department of Agriculture. State and railroad lands in National 
Forest areas were given over to the National Forest in lieu of equal 
areas of government land located elsewhere. This amounted to a 
double restriction of free land. Moreover, the National Forest 
service made definite allotments on which only a stated nimiber of 
sheep were allowed for a specified time at a consideration of so 
much per head. Often these allotments were situated so that 
transfer from them to the plains was difficult. 

Added Cost of Ranges. — Because of the changes outlined above 
it is impossible to run as many sheep in many sections as formerly 
and obviously these changes have added to the cost of running 
sheep in various ways, as follows : 

First, charges are made for all lands except public domain, which 
is becoming more and more restricted. 

Second, the alternation of tracts of private lands withdrawn 
from grazing with tracts of public and private lands rented to 
sheepmen has raised the cost of maintenance by requiring additional 
labor and has reduced the possible returns through lowering the feed- 
ing capacity of the range. In eastern Colorado, where homesteaders 
who have enclosed their lands are numerous, only alternate sec- 
tions are open for grazing. Tender such conditions the bands of sheep 
have to be about half normal size in order to give the sheep in the 
rear a chance to find feed. That is, the band does not have the 
same opportunity to remain spread out while feeding as formerly 
l)ecause of having to pass around the sections in the hands of home- 
steaders. Thus, one sees that more labor per thousand sheep is 
required in eastern Colorado now than in the days before the 
coming of homesteaders. Then, it is impossible for sheepmen in 
that section to get their sheep in as good condition as formerly, 
even though the area per head remains the same, because they 
have to travel so much more than they used to. Since, oftentimes, 
owners of several bands can not secure all of their summer range in 
one body in the National Forest more labor is required than when the 
area of mountain range was not definitely fixed. It used to be 
common for one tender to look after two or three camps in the 
mountains, but now he is seldom responsible for more than one. 
Allotment lines are generally irregular, making many corners and 
pockets, which prevent radiating out from camp as in the good old 
free-for-all days. On this account summer bands are not as large 
as thev used to be. 



428 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS 

Third, the ownership and withdrawal of so much land has made 
trailing from one range to another l)oth difficult and expensive. 
The trails are narrow and must be travelled over by many bands 
of sheep. Feed becomes scarce, the sheep go backward in condition, 
and lambs are often permanently stunted by the hard.sliips of the 
trail. In many sections the land between summer and winter range 
has become occupied to such extent that the sheep have to be trans- 
ferred by rail. 

Fourth, the changes which have come about in control of lands 
have forced sheepmen to invest heavily in lands. In recent years 
homesteaders all over the ^Yest have sold lands worth not to exceed 
$3 per acre at from $5 to $15 per acre. There was a time when it 
was not necessary for the sheepman to own a foot of land, but that 
day has passed. He who owns land has advantage in controlling- 
lands for which rentals are paid. Besides, sheepmen should own 
land on which cultivated crops are grown for the purpose of sup- 
plementing range and those who l)ought land a nund)er of years 
ago are now best prepared to continue in the sheep business. Not 
only that, but they purchased when prices were extremely low and 
the advance of land values have been such that their investments 
were very profitable. 

Changes in Labor. — During the last fifteen or twenty years 
there have been significant changes in labor on sheep ranches with 
resjject to the amount recjuired. its efficiency, and its cost in wages 
and provisions. 

Throughout Ihe West more labor per thousand sheep is re- 
quired now than a number of years ago. Statements liave already 
been made which show that this is true. As compared with the 
past, sheepmen now operate under what may be termed crowded 
conditions. There are the homesteaders on the plains, allotments in 
the mountains, ranch headquarters for producing and storing feed, 
all of which did not exist in the past and which add to the amount 
of labor needed. It is harder now to keep difi'erent bands from mix- 
ing and to prevent trespassing; hence, bands have to be either cut 
down in size or tended by more men. Then, too, lands are now 
used as range which were once discarded because they were of such 
nature that too much labor was needed in handling the sheep. 

Sheepmen emphatically assert that the labor procured now is 
not as good as that which they used to employ. There are more 
densely populated communities in the West now which attract many 



BETTER PROVISION REQUIRED 429 

of the best ]al)orers, and the wage-seekers who enter sheep camps 
to-day do not possess the kind of motives that insure efficiency. In 
the early days the sheep camps were occupied l)y amhitious young 
men who needed money to he sure, hut who also wanted the ex- 
perience that would ])repare them for engaging in husiness for them- 
selves. Therefore, they were up and doing and they were efficient. 
But now, when it is not easy for the ambitious, poor young man to get 
into the sheep business for himself and since labor is scarce, prac- 
tically any one who will go to herd sheep is acceptable. Those who 
do go are u*^ually wanderers who go from place to place without 
becoming fixed to any occupation and, although they may work well, 
they herd sheep poorly because they do not stay with the job long 
enough to learn how. 

The cost of labor has increased. Tn the past twenty years the 
increase in monthly wages has been very great. The report of the 
Tariff Board, issued in 1911, states that in 189.5, or thereabouts, 
there was no difficulty in hiring herders at $15 per month in Xew 
]\[exico and that in California their services could be secured for 
$25 per month. It would take from three to four times these wages 
to get herders at the present time. 

There is also increased cost incurred in securing labor. In the 
past a goodly supply of reliable help was easily obtained close to the 
ranches. That is, it was largely a matter of the laborers seeking the 
job, but the reverse is the situation nov/. Owners and superin- 
tendents have to go to town and spend several days in finding 
laborers. This may occur several times in the year, and when 
special labor is needed, such as in the lambing season, the hunt for 
men is so strenuous that an owner or superintendent spends time 
in town which would better be spent on the ranch if help were pro- 
curable in any other nianiu'r. 

Better Provision Required. — It requires a greater expenditure 
per month to provide for sheep herders than formerly. This has 
come about mainly through the adoption of a higher standard of 
livijig which is traceable in part to tlife scarcity of labor. When 
efficient laborers l)egan to be scarce the more aggressive shee]) owners 
improved the quality and increased the variety of provisions in 
order to attract more men and particularly the best herders to their 
camps. In a short time all owners were forced to provide well in 
order to get laborers at all. Then with the inception of more settled 
conditions there was perhaps a general rise in the standard of living 



430 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS 

which was bound to extend to the sheep camps. But in the South- 
west the assertion is commonly made that special help can be secured 
because the liberal supply of provisions in camp afford an oppor- 
tunity for the village loafers to get a good fill. And it is doubtful 
whether laborers in villages receiving wages comparable with those 
paid to sheep herders have as much to eat. In fact, it is well known 
that they do not. Constant reference is made to the relatively simple 
list of provisions which was furnished to the old-time herders and 
comparing it with the list of to-day, provisions must cost several 
times as much as they did in the early days. 

Greater Investment Required. — Still another significant 
change in range conditions is the much greater investment in im- 
provements and equipment. The large tracts of land which owners 
have felt obliged to purchase must be fenced at a cost of about 
$150 per mile. In many places water has been secured at great 
expense by digging wells or by building reservoirs. Because of 
the rise in the cost of operation and in the value per head of the 
sheep, buildings and corrals have been erected which were not 
deemed necessary at an earlier time. Horses and machinery for 
working the cultivated lands are now items of considerable cost 
which at one time did not appear on the inventory. 

All of the changes enumerated above have been in the direction 
of raising the cost of maintaining sheep in the West. But a few 
changes have been made which either help to reduce the cost of 
operation or to increase the returns possible from the sheep. 

Beneficial Changes. — For example, railivay facilities have been 
constantly improving. As railways grew more numerous it was 
easier to get both wool and sheep to points of shipment, and the ex- 
pense of getting supplies and equipment to the range was consider- 
ably lessened. In the earlier days of sheep ranching in the West, 
mutton could not be of much importance, for facilities for getting it 
to market were not developed. In very recent years little spurs of 
railway have penetrated regions here and there which permit of 
getting fat lambs out of the mountains to the great central markets. 
As a practice, however, shipping sheep out of the West has been in 
vogue for thirty years or more. 

The introduction of cultivated crops has made earlier lambing 
])ossible in a number of places. This, together with the better feed 
and improvement in breeding, has changed the lamb crops into a 
better and more seasonable product. 



COST PER HEAD 



431 



Sheepmen are becoming more and more tolerant in their views 
concerning the control of the National Forests; this indicates that 
those in charge are earnestly seeking means of allowing sheep 
owners to get a maximum amount of good from the Forests. 

How Changes Affect Cost of Production. — After considering 
all of the favorable changes on the range the fact remains that most 
of the changes have tended to raise the cost of production and to 
render the sheep business more complex. He who engages in the 
business must he equipped with both sheep and capital, whereas in 
the early days the latter could be very largely ignored. Again, there 
was a time when anyone who could herd sheep might enjoy a fair 
degree of success as an owner. That day has passed, for now it 
requires business instinct and organization to make a sheep outfit 
])ay. He who does not take an inventory and size himself up 
annually is likely to have to find a new business. Those days when 
slieep herders rambled around in solitude with their fiocks furnished 
accounts of experiences and adventures which are read with intense 
interest, but such days could not always exist. The picturesque and 
romantic period of the sheep business on the western ranges has 
passed beyond recall. Cold figures, close calculations, and clever 
organization rule now and business men hold the reins wherever 
profits are made. 

Cost Per Head. — A Government report, issued in 1890, esti- 



Expenses in Maintaining Sheep, per year. 



Statea 



Value per 
head of 
buildings 
and im- 
prove- 
ments 



Labor per 

head 
(including 
shearing) 



Mainte- 
nance 
per head 



Miscel- 
laneous 
and selling 
expense 
per head 
(including 
provisions) 



Total 
expense 
per head 



Arizona 

California . . . 
Colorado . . . . 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

Oregon 

Utah. 

Washington . 
Wyoming . . . 

Average 



$0.89 

.79 

.44 

1.02 

1.42 

.9.5 

.59 

1.30 

.71 

.87 

.75 



1.79 
.55 
.60 
.59 
.54 
.76 
.56 
.56 
.69 
.74 
.72 



1.15 
.81 
.26 
.96 
.54 
.36 
.18 
.63 
.38 
.62 
.36 



.89 



.63 



.46 



fl.l3 
.99 
.90 

1.30 
.97 

1.11 
.91 
.80 

1.20 
.77 

1.01 

1.02 



$2.07 
2.35 
1.76 
2.95 
2.05 
2.23 
1.65 
1.99 
2.27 
2.13 
2.09 

2.11 



432 CHANGES IN RANGE CONDITIONS 

mated the cost of running sheep in the West at from 25 to 50 cents 
per head. From figures secured on more than 3,000,000 sheep in 
the West in 1911, the report of the tariff board estimated that the 
cost of maintenance had risen to $2.11 per head per year. The 
table taken from that report shows the distribution of expenses 
and the total expense in maintaining sheep in the various western 
states. The cost of maintenance now (1918) is much greater than 
the figures given for 1911. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What were the conditions under which sheepmen occupied the range? 

2. How did the homesteader affect range conditions? 

3. Wliat did the state and railroads demand from the sheepmen for the 

use of their lands ? 

4. How have the changes affected the cost of growing sheep in the West? 
.'i. How has lalwr affected the sheep raising? 

G. What changes have been made to reduce the cost of operation and to 

increase returns? 
7. How have all these significant changes in range conditions affected the 
business ? 



i 



PART VII 

MISCELLANEOUS 



28 



CHAPTER XLIV 
BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 

The point which has been emphasized more tiuin any other in 
connection with the construction of buildings for sheep is that this 
class of animals does not require an expensive type of shelter. 
While this is true it does not follow that care in planning a sheep 
barn or shed is unnecessary. In fact, it pays well to erect a type of 
building which bears ample evidence of planning for the health of 
the sheep and for the convenience of those responsible for their care. 

Essential Features of Buildings for Sheep. — Location. — 
Sheep buildings should be located on dry, well-drained ground 
where there are no obstructions to sunlight and good air drainage. 
A southern slope having the possibilities of a bank barn serves as 
an excellent liuilding site. The ground to be converted into lots 
about the building should also be dry and well-drained, for dry 
footing is one of the essentials to the health of sheep (Fig. 233). 

If possible, the barn or shed should be located only a short dis- 
tance from at least a part of the area that is to be used as pasture or 
forage for the flock. This will permit of the barn being used 
throughout the year and it is a much more convenient place than 
the fields for feeding grain to the lambs in late sj)ring and in 
summer. In order to economize time in caring for the flock the 
sheep barn should be located near the other farm barns, provided 
this can be done without sacrificing the other important factors 
mentioned above. If only a shed is erected it will bo necessary for 
the sake of convenience to locate it near buildings where winter 
feed is stored. 

Shape of Bam. — In general the rectangular barn is the most 
convenient type for housing a breeding flock of sheep. During 
certain periods it is necessary to divide the main flock into various 
smaller groups for which it is easier to provide pens in a rectangular 
barn than in either a square or a round barn. But in case it is 
unnecessary to arrange for small grou]")s, the square and round types 
of barns may be quite as desirable as the rectangular type ( Fig. 234). 

Warmth. — Sheep do not require an expensive type of building 
because they do not need especially warm quarters, which, together 

435 



436 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 



Fig. 235. 




Fig. 236. 

Fig 235 —Sheep barn, University of Illinois. On well-drained ground, no obstruc- « 
tions to sunlight and located close to the pasture and forage areas. . /-„„„„;*„ 

Fig. 236.— Sheep barn of B. F. Harris, Banker Farmer, Champaign, Illinois. Capacity 
1,000 sheep. Skylights in the roof of the annex to the main barn. 

with the fact that they are easy to keep under restraint, makes it 
unnecessary to use heavy huilding materials. Except in cases where 
lambing occurs in cold weather, single walls will provide ample pro- 



FLOORS 437 

tection, and, as stated in the discussion of lambino; in Chapter 
XXXII, a warm room can be easil_y arranged for young lambs in 
one section or corner of the barn. 

Dryness. — Any sheep barn which does not keep the feet and the 
coats dry is practically a failure. In addition to placing the barn on 
a dry, well-drained site, it is advisable to raise the ground inside the 
foundation three or four inches by filling in with clay. The lots just 
outside should be graded so that water will drain rapidly away from 
the barn and whenever possible they should bo coated with gravel 
(Figs. 235 and 236). 

Light. — A barn which does not admit an abundance of light 
invites the collection of dirt and filth, both of which are detrimental 
to the health and thrift of sheep. Especial attention should he 
given to arranging the ))arn so that it will admit a maximum of 
sunlight in winter and early si)ring for no other natural agency 
equals sunlight in destroying germ life and it is of especial benefit 
to both ewes and lambs in the lambing season. 

Ventilation. — No other class of animals suffers more from con- 
finement in close, jioorly ventilated ((uarters than do sheep, and 
hence it is impossible to over-emphasize the importance of good 
ventilation. The barn should admit an abundance of fresh air, but 
strong drafts should be avoided. This is not easily accomplished in 
cold weather, especially if there are young landjs that must have 
warm quarters. But it should l)e possible to admit a suflficient 
amount of fresh air by opening doors and windows on the side of 
the barn opposite the direction from which the wind is coming. 
In order to avoid drafts in large barns where there is a large 
amount of unbroken space, it is usually necessary to construct one 
or two partitions extending from the floor to the ceiling. 

One of the best fresh-air types of shelter for shecj) is a slied 
which is open on one side. Foul air never collects in such a build- 
ing, and there are seldom any injurious drafts. Systems of ven- 
tilation having no connection with windows and doors have not 
been extensively installed in sheep barns, but doubtless they can be 
used to advantage in cold climates (Figs. 237-239). 

Floors. — Earth floors are the cheapest and best for sheep. A 
floor surfaced with clay will soon become so firmly packed by the 
sheep tramping over it that very little of the liquid manure can 
escape. The alleys, the foundation, and possibly the feeding floors 
should be made of concrete, but a wooden floor is (juite as satisfactory 
as concrete for feed rooms. 



438 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 

Breeding ewes require from 12 to IG square feet of floor space, 
exclusive of space for racks; feeding sheep and young stock being 




I'lu. 237. -Shed, open on one aide, University of Illinois; foreground showing fences made 

of movable panels. 




'^-.:4 



-^> ^- 






Fig. 238.— a closed sheep shed. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) 

developed for the breeding flock require only from 5 to 8 square 
feet of floor space. 

The interior arrangement of a building for sheep should aim 
at providing for the following: A minimum of waste space; the 



FEED RACKS 



439 



comfort of the animals, and convenience in feeding and watering, 
and in cleaning the pens. Since sheep are easily restrained, the 
partitions between pens should be movable and made of compara- 
tively light material and then the penning arrangement of the barn 
can be changed from time to time to suit the needs of the flock. 
Often it is of advantage to construct movable racks which may also 
serve as partitions between pens. 

Feed Racks. — A feed rack for sheep should hold a sufficient 
quantity of feed, but it need not be a great, cumbersome thing; it 



£■^'-0'- 




Fig. 239.— Floor plan of shed shown in Fig. 238. (From L". S. D. A. Bulletin SIO.) 

should be planned so that the animals can get to the feed easily 
without wasting it or getting it in their wool, and there should l)e 
no sharp corners or rough surfaces to pull out the wool or to cause 
injury to the animals. If possible, racks should be built of sur- 
faced lumber. 

In nearly all types of racks for hay or similar roughage, the feed 
is drawn out between slats. These should be either so close to- 
gether that it will be impossible for a sheep to thrust its head 
between them or so far apart that the head will pass between them 
without danger of becoming fast. Three and one-half to four-inch 
spaces are sufficient for drawing out feed without inserting the 



440 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 

head, while six- to eight-inch spaces will permit of ample freedom 
for passing the head through (Figs. 240-342). 

Where large numbers of sheep are fed, as is the case in large 
plants where western sheep and lambs are fattened, the grain is 




Fig. 240. — Hack with slats four inches apart and with trough for grain below the slats. 
Suitable for wall rack or partitions. 

often fed in troughs separate from the racks in which the hay is 
placed. In handling a flock of ordinary size, a combination grain 
and hay rack is usually the most convenient type of receptacle for 



Fig. 241. 



Fig. 242. 




Fig. 241. — Combination grain and hay rack in which slata are upright and four inches 
apart, suitable for partitions only. This is an uncommon type of rack but very satisfactory 
for fitting show sheep. 

Fig. 242. — Rack 24 inches wide with slats 6 to 8 inches apart to permit the sheep to 
thrust their heads between them. Suitable for partition only. 

feed. Combination racks are of two types ; in one the hay is placed 
in a rack above the trough for the grain (Fig. 240) ; in the other, 
the hay and grain are placed on the same bottom (Fig. 239). In 



LAMBING PENS 



441 



using the latter type, the grain is consumed before the hay is fed, 
and generally the same method is followed with the type in which 
the rack for the hay is placed above the grain trough. Combination 
racks are much more suitable than separate racks for preventing 
waste with hay containing a^ high percentage of loose leaves. These 
are very largely lost in racks intended for hay only, but in com- 
bination racks they fall on the bottoms intended for the grain and 
are saved (Fig. 243). 




Fio. 243. — A combination hay and grain rark whioh may be entered by the attendant 
when feeding grain or hay — for partitions only. (From I'. S. D. A. Farmer's Bulletin 810.) 

Troughs for grain, silage, and roots should l)e from 8 to 10 
inclics wide in combination racks and 13 inches or more in separate 
])ieces of construction. I'hc sides should lie about 5 inches high 
and should slope slightly outward. The bottoms should be fiat in 
order to keep the sheep from eating too rapidly and should stand 
about one foot from the ground. Separate troughs should be con- 
structed so that they can not be easily pushed over, and there should, 
be a railing above them to keep the sheep from standing or lying in 
them (Figs. 244 and 245). 

The amount of rack or trough s])ace required depends upon the 
size of the animals. Feeding lambs should be allowed about 12 
inches each and large breeding ewes as much as 18 inches. 

Lambing pens are almost indispensable to successful lambing 
and the movable type is the more convenient to use. Since they are 



442 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 

A 




Fia. 244. — A reversible stationary grain trough which ia easy to keep clean because it is 
reversible. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) 




Fig. 245. — A light movable trough for feeding grain, silage and roots. The long 
dimension pieces resting on the ground make it difficult for the sheep to turn the trough 
over. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) 



A LAMB CREEP 



443 



to be moved from place to place, they are best if made of light 
boards, preferably white pine seven-eigliths inch by three inches, 
planed on both sides. The pens consist of two four-foot panels or 
hurdles hinged together. By opening these panels at right angles 
in a corner of the barn where the free ends may be fastened to walls, 
a pen four feet square is made which provides sufficient space for 
the average-sized ewe and her lambs (Fig. 246). 

The panels are sometimes arranged by using but one wall, so as 
to form a triangular pen for a ewe that refuses to own her himb. 




FlQ. 246. — Hinged panels for lambing pen. (From U. S. D. A, Bulletin 810.) 



If tied up in one corner of the pen she cannot move away from her 
young far enough to prevent it from nursing. By unfolding the 
panels so that they stand end to end, they may be made to serve as 
partitions in the barn. They can also be constructed so that they 
can be used as lamb creeps (Fig. 146). 

A lamb creep is a device that admits the lambs to a feeding 
place but excludes the older sheep. Its construction should be a 
very simple matter. Provision should be made for adjusting the 
size of tlie openings for the lambs and as a rule there should not be 
more than two or three places for admitting them, so that in the 
event some of the older sheep are small enough to gain admittance, 



444 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 

which is frequently the case after shearing, the creep can be easily 
closed after the lambs have passed into it. Eather expensive devices, 

Fig. 247, 




Fig. 248. 



Fig. 247. — Small lamb creep made of hinged panels which permit the lambs to eat 
from same trough as their mother. Useful in teaching lambs to eat. 
Fig. 248. — Rack for water pail. 

such as rollers for uprights between which the lambs pass in and 
out of the creep, have been constructed. While such an arrange- 
ment is practically above criticism as a " creep "' opening, it is really 



WATERING TROUGHS 



445 




Fig. 249. — Farm dipping plant Tank to the left; dripping pen in center, and chute from 
dripping pen at the right. 

5 7 In .. 

-X N » ¥i H X H n H X N K X K K H » * 



-)* )( ^ H )t— X »« X X X »( H )( K * *i — a- 



6_ 



-W If « W X X >* X N X X X X X H X »«■ 




X ' M <H »« — X H »< H — M M — M »< H — H M »e-»< >< — M — )*- 



Fig. 250.— a dog-proof fence. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) 

nnneoessary, as the woolly coat of the laml) skives it sufficient i)ro- 
tection in passiiijo^ 1)etween stationary uprights havino^ the sharp 
corners rounflerl off (Fig. 247). 

Watering Troughs. — Tn many cases it is just as well, or perhaps 
better, to have the water supplied outside of the barn, for it is 



446 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 

likely to be somewhat more wholesome, but it should be easily 
accessible at all times and hence it is often advisable to have it in 
the barn. The troughs should be located in light, airy places and 
they should be so constructed that they can be kept clean, which is 
perhaps easiest done by installing a system of under-drainage, mak- 
ing it possible to drain the water off frequently. Also provision 
should be made, if possible, to keep the water from freezing in 
winter. 







i<'iG. 251. — Temporary fence supported by iron posts. 

In lambing time, it is usually necessary to water some of the 
sheep from pails. A rack in which to place the pail to keep it from 
overturning is shown in Fig. 248. 

Shearing Floor. — The shearing floor, which should be about ten 
feet square, can be made of hard pine boards twelve inches wide and 
surfaced on one side. After the shearing is over, these can be 
taken up and stored where they Avill keep in good condition. 

Wool Room. — -While a wool room is a good feature in a sheep 
barn, it is not absolutely necessary to have it. But if the wool is not 
sold at once after shearing, it should be stored in a clean place. The 



FENCES AND HURDLES 



447 



A/o/b/?^ ^9^^/? 



feed room or some of the grain bins in the barn may not be in use 
after shearing time, in which case it will be easy to find a place for 
the wool. Should storage for a long period be contemplated, how- 
ever, a separate room for the wool should be provided. It need not 
© be large, as the fleeces can be packed 

into a eoniparatively small space. 

Equipment Outside of the Bam, 
— Silo. — In case a silo is desired, it 
should be located outside the barn 
close to the feeding room ; in fact, the 
chute should be arranged so that the 
silage will fall from tbe silo into the 
feeding room. 

Dipping Plant. — In connection 
with every sheep barn there should be 
an inexpensive dipping plant, located 
wliere it will not interfere with every- 
day handling of the flock. Portable 
galvanized iron vats can be purchased 
from supply houses, which are ade- 
quate for dipping flocks of ordinary 
size. When set in place, the top of 
the vat should be about six inches 
al)ove the ground. At one end of it 
there should be a small pen to hold 
sheep awaiting dipping, and at the 
other, a draining platform where the 
sheep are allowed to stand for a few 
minutes after they are dipped, in 
order to let the liquid drain out of 
their wool and run back into the vat. 
A walk-way can be built as an ap- 
proach to the vat, and there are vari- 
ous devices for sliding the sheep into 
it. But, if the sheep are not let down gently into the liquid, a 
great deal of it is splashed out and lost. In dipping small flocks it 
pays to lift each sheep and carefully place it in the vat (Fig. 249). 
Fences and Hurdles. — If possible sheep should be protected by 
])oundarv fences that will exclude dogs. (It is doubtl'ul wlujther 




y.i. 



Fig. 252.— The iron post. The 
bottom wire of the fence is caught in 
the crotch formed by the junction of 
the elbow piece with the long rod 
and the top wire rests in the notch 
indicated in the diagram. 



448 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FARM FLOCKS 

any fence is absolutely dog-proof.) The fence shown in Fig. 250, 
having a barbed wire close to the ground and three barbed wires at 
the top would be found proof against most dogs. Division fences 

l^ 

lZ''<>''-~" ' 




Fig. 253. — A wooden panel, suitable for temporary fencing. (From U. S. D. A. Bulletin 810.) 



thirty-six inches high and made of woven wire are adequate for 
keeping most sheep in place. These fences may be either temporary 
or permanent in nature, or the temporary fence may be made of 
wooden panels (Figs. 250-253), The iron post shown in Figs. 
251 and 252 was designed by the writer to use with temporary 
wire fencing. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Enumerate the e.ssential features of a sheep barn. 

2. Why is it possible to build a good slieep barn at comparatively low cost? 

3. What are the essential features of a good sheep rack? 

4. Why should the bottoms of troughs be flat? 

5. How much floor space do mature ewes require? 



CHAPTER XLV 
PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 

Importance of Mutton and Lamb in the Meat Dietary. — 
Mutton and lamb form a very small part of the meat diet of 
farmers in the United States. The chief reason why they eat so 
little of these meats is that they believe all mutton and lamb has 
the so-called disagreeable " woolly flavor." In the majority of cases, 
this belief is based merely on the " say so "' of some one else, but it 
is so firmly fixed that few attempt to prove or disprove it for them- 
selves. It, no doubt, originated in the early days of sheep hus- 
bandry when the wool breeds were poi)ular and mature sheep were 
the chief source of the mutton supply. The introduction of mutton 
breeds and the increased demand for mutton and lamb in the 
larger cities has brought about a great improvement in the quality 
of the mutton produced, and to-day this " woolly flavor " is almost 
never noticeable in lambs and yearlings, and seldom in mature 
sheep (Fig. 254). 

Another reason why the farmers have not utilized this source of 
meat supply is because they think it difficult to properly slaughter 
and dress a sheep. This, however, is even more fallacious than the 
belief regarding flavor, for neither the process of slaughter nor of 
cutting the carcass is any more difficult than killing a hog and 
cutting and curing the meat, a task which is ordinarily considered 
quite simple. 

Care Before Slaughter. — The animal to be slaughtered should 
be in healthy and as nearly normal condition as possible at the time 
of slaughter. It should be handled carefully to prevent bruises on 
the carcass; all undue excitement should be avoided, and if possible, 
it should be fasted from eighteen to twenty-four hours, but allowed 
free access to water. Attention to these details facilitates thorough 
bleeding, insures more rapid cooling of the carcass, lessens the 
danger of cutting the internal organs, and tends to prevent the 
disagreeable flavor of the meat caused by the fermentation of feed 
material in the stomach. The fleece should be dry and reasonably 
clean, as it is practically impossi])le to hang up a clean carcass if 
the fleece is wet or dirty. Shearing is often advisal)le, since the pelt 
29 449 



450 



PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 



is easier handled and removed with the wool out of the way, and the 
wool alone can usually be sold for as much or more than the un- 
sheared pelt. 

Method of Slaughter. — Equipment Required. — A clean, dry 
place to work is the first essential. A low bench or box upon which 
to lay the animal, a sticking knife, and some provision for hanging 
the carcass is all the equipment required for slaughtering a sheep. 

Method of Sticking.— The sheep is laid on a low box or bench 
on its left side with the head extending over the edge. It is held in 
this position by standing behind the sheep and placing the right 




Fio. 254. — A, mutton deficient in quantity of fat; B, properly finished mutton; C, mutton 

carrying too much fat. 



knee in the fore flank. The lower jaw is grasped with the left hand 
and the knife is stuck into the neck just back of tlie angle of the jaw 
slightly below and behind the ear. The knife should go through the 
neck at one thrust, with the edge of the knife toward the head. If 
desired, the beginner may then turn the knife and cut out through 
the neck, thus severing all the blood-vessels. To stun tlie sheep after 
sticking, the neck is broken by either placing one hand on the fore- 
head and pulling up on the jaw, or by severing the spinal cord at 
the atlas joint with the knife (Fig. 255). 

Removing the Pelt. — The removal of the pelt is begun at the 
front legs by cutting out a narrow strip down the front of the leg 
from the neck to the ankle joint, holding the foot, in the meantime, 
between the knees. The legs, the point of the brisket, and the un- 
der side of the neck are then skinned. Following this the flesh of 



REMOVING THE PELT 



451 




Flu. 



nig tilt neck. 



452 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 

the neck is cut through in order to loosen the windpipe and gullet. 
In lambs and yearlings the feet are removed at the " break joint " ^ 
by cutting across the raise on the cannon just above the ankle and 
twisting the foot. In mature sheep, this joint will not break, and 
the feet are removed at the ankle-joint. 

The removal of the pelt at the hind legs is begun by cutting out 
a strip of skin down the back of the leg from the anus to the lowest 
point where the feet are removed. The feet should never be removed 
at the ankle-joint, because the tendons will pull out when the carcass 
is hung. The hind legs should not be skinned out to as great extent 
as the front legs ; the pelt should be merely loosened along the sides 
and back of the leg. The leg of mutton is a valuable cut, and by 
leaving the pelt on as long as possible, it is much easier to keep 
it clean. 

Beginning at the brisket and cod, or udder, the pelt is loosened 
over the belly by forcing the fist between the skin and flesh. Like- 
wise the pelt over the sides is fisted off, care being taken not to tear 
the thin muscles at the flanks. This is easiest avoided by fisting 
first down over the center of the side, and then working each way 
from this point over the flank muscles. 

The tendons in the hind leg are loosened between the hock and 
the ankle l)y cutting between them and the bone. The legs are then 
tied with a cord and the carcass hung at a convenient height. The 
pelt is further removed by splitting it down the center and fisting it 
off over the sides, flanks, and legs, and working up over the hind 
flank and leg, and down over the shoulder. Next the hide is loosened 
around the tail with the knife and the pelt is pulled down the back 
to the neck, where it is removed with the head at the atlas joint 
(Fig. 256). 

Removing the Viscera. — The first step in removing the viscera 
is to cut around the rectum and pull it out a short distance to 
loosen it. The carcass is then opened down the middle line from 
the cod (or udder) to the breast-bone, care being taken to shield 
the point of the knife between the fingers to avoid cutting the 
intestines. The large intestine is then pulled downward carefully 
to avoid loosening the kidney fat. The operator uses the knife to 

^ The " break joint " or " lamb joint " is a temporary cartilage which 
forms a dentate suture in the head of the shank immediately above the 
ankle. It will not break in mature sheep because the cartilage is knit 
or ossified (Illinois Bulletin 147). 



CARE OF THE CARCASS 



453 



detach the paunch and liver from the back, pulls the viscera for- 
ward and either cuts the gullet or pulls it out with the stomach. The 
liver upon being removed from the viscera and the gall-bladder cut 
away from it should be placed in a pail of cold water. By cutting 
around the diaphragm the heart and lungs are removed. The in- 
side of the carcass is then carefully wiped out with a damp cloth, 
care being taken to see that the chest cavity is thoroughly drained. 
To facilitate rapid cooling, the breast-bone may be split and a short 
spread stick used to hold the carcass open (Fig. 359). 




Fio. 256. — Removing the pelt. A, skinning around forelegs and neck; li, skinning 

around hind legs. 



When dressing sheep for market, the forelegs are folded back 
at the knee and fastened to the shank with a skewer. This gives the 
carcass a thicker and neater appearance. Likewise, lamb carcasses 
are given a fatter, more finished appearance by spreading the caul 
fat over the legs and flank (Fig. 260). 

Care of the Carcass. — The mutton or lamb carcass should be 
allowed to hang until it is thoroughly cooled, at approximately 40 
degrees F., if possible. After it is cooled throughout it may, in the 
winter months, be allowed to freeze and can be preserved almost 
indefinitely if a frozen condition is maintained. Alternate freezing 
and thawing is detrimental to the quality and flavor of the meat. If 
carefully protected from flies by some such means as wrapping a 



454 



PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 




Fig. 257.^La.st four stages in removing the pelt. .4, "fisting" over belly and sides; 
B, cutting through skin on ventral side; C, "fisting" over shoulder; D, "fisting" over 
hind legs. 



METHOD OF CUTTING THE CARCASS 



455 



piece of cheesecloth loosely about it, the carcass mav Ije cooled in 
the cellar in the spring and summer months. 

Method of Cutting the Carcass. — The sheep carcass is very 
easily dividL'd into the various cuts I'or table use, since each main 
division yields a cut of suitable size for the average family (Fig. 258). 







Fig. 258,— Mutton and lamb cuts. Each half carcass is divided into: 1, lep; 2, loin; 
3, rib; 4, -shoulder; 5, breast. 

The additional equipment required for cutting are a sharp 
butcher knife, a meat saw, a cleaver, and if possible, a solid bench or 
block upon which to work. 

There is a thin, papery membrane covering the entire carcass 
known as the " fell,'' which should always be removed from everj' 



456 



PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 




Fig. 259. — Removing viscera. 




Fig. 260. — The carcass, a, showing spread stick in place; 6, showing how forelegs are folded. 



LOIN 



457 



Fig. 261. 



Fig. 262. 




Fig. 261. — Dressed for special market. The pelt is not removed and the caul fat is 
spread over the opening in the ventral side. 

Fig. 262. — Wrapped first with muslin and then with burlap in preparation for shipment 
to special market. 



458 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 

cut of mutton and lamb before it is cooked. It is very tough and 
the woolly flavor is often attributed to its presence. 

For home use, the carcass should first be divided into halves. 
With the carcass hanging, the aitch bone is cut through with a 
knife. The hind legs are spread apart and the carcass sawed down 
the center of the backbone. Each half of the carcass may then be 
further divided into the following cuts: 

Breast. — The breast consists of the flank, plate, and front shank. 
It is the cheapest cut of the carcass and is used principally for 
stews. To remove this cut the operator starts at the cod (or udder) 
and cuts straight forward through a point just above the elbow- 
joint. The excess fat is then trimmed off and the thin, tough mem- 
brane on the inside of the flank is removed, after which the ribs are 
cracked with a cleaver and the fore shank is sawed through in one 
or two places. 

Leg. — The leg of mutton is used chiefly as a roast, but may be 
used for steaks. Because of the thick lean and small amount of 
bone, it is the most popular roast cut of the carcass. The point at 
which it is removed varies with the size of roast desired. Ordinarily 
it is cut off on a lino parallel with the ribs at the point where the 
spinal cord bends upward. The shank may either be removed at the 
stifle joint and the strip of shank meat skewered over the joint 
(American or plain trimmed), or it may be sawed off just above the 
hock and the meat scraped off the bone for a distance of three- 
fourtlis to one inch (French trimmed). The most desirable roast 
for carving is made by removing all bones and tying the meat in a 
roll. In all cases the thin flank muscles, the tail bones, and excess 
fat should l)e trimmed off. 

Loin. — The most palatable mutton or lamb chops are cut from 
the ]i)in because it contains the most tender muscles of the carcass. 
It extends from the leg to the twelfth or next to the last rib. In 
preparing this ciit the kidney is removed and the chops are cut 
across the loin about three-fourths of an inch thick. The loin also 
makes a good roast, although the lean is not as thick as that of the 
leg or shoulder. To prepare a loin roast, the joints of the backbone 
are cut through with the cleaver or may be removed and the roast 
tied in a roll. Boneless rolled chops may be cut from a boned loin, 
slvewers being used to hold them in shape. 

Rib. — The rib extends from the last to the fourth or fifth rib 
and is used for chops and roasts. Eib chops are cut one rib wide, 
and the roasts prepared in the same manner as those of the loin. A 



SLAUGHTERING LAMBS FOR SPECIAL MARKETS 459 

crown roast is also iiuulc I'l'din [\\v rili cuts. The llesli is rolled back 
from tho lower end of the ribs, the spinal process sawed off, and the 
two cuts tied end to end, bending the ribs backward. 

Shoulder. — The shoulder is used for either roasts, chops, or 
srews. The large amount of bone it contains makes it undesirable 
for roasting unless boned and rolled, when it practically equals the 
leg in quality. If not boned, its preparation consists of trimming 
off the neck square, aiul cutting through the joints of the backbone 
with tho cleaver. Shoulder cho))s are cut either parallel to the ribs 
or across the lower part of the shoulder at the point where the shank 
was removed. 

Slaughtering Lambs for Special Markets. — Prime young 
lambs weighing from fifty to sixty pounds that are ready for sale 
from one to three months before the regular crop of lambs is largx' 
enough to market, are often slaughtered on the farm and sold 
direct to clubs and high-class hotels in the larger cities. 

They are marketed with the pelt on and are ordinarily wrapj)ed 
in two separate covers for shipment, the inner consisting of tough 
paper or muslin, and the outer of burlap or sacking. This keeps the 
carcass clean, prevents excessive drying out, and furnishes soine 
protection against bruises. 

In dressing the carcass, a strip of skin four or five inches wide is 
loosened along the underline, and the skin from around the rectum 
and from the inside of the legs is removed. The feet are cut off 
at the ankle- and knee-joints, leaving a small flap of skin to fold 
hack over the joint. All the internal organs are removed except the 
pluck, which consists of the heart, lungs, and liver. In warm weather 
these, too, should be removed to insure thorough cooling of the car- 
cass. The breast-bone is then split and the carcass is spread open 
with backsets.^ The caul fat is placed over the exposed flesh and 
the carcass allowed to cool thoroughly before shipping (Fig. 261). 

A square yard of muslin is sufficient for wrapping one lamb, 
and should be neatly sewed on so as to cover all the exposed parts 
of the carcass. The burlap wrapping over the muslin is sometimes 
omitted and two or three laml)s placed in a light crate lined with 
heav}^ paper (Fig. 262). 

- IJacksets are sliarpened sticks 15 to 18 inches long with a aliouldor 
about an inch back from each point. The points are inseited in the loose 
skin near tlie breastbone and the tinned-back ilank on tlie o|)posit(' side 
of the carcass, crossing them over tlie back. 



460 PREPARING MUTTON ON THE FARM 

QUESTIONS 

1. Is mutton popular with country people? 

2. What equipment is necessary to slaughter a sheep? 

3. What equipment is necessary to cut up the carcass of a sheep? 

4. Which is more palatable mutton, mature sheep, or lamb? 

5. How are lambs dressed on the farm prepared for shipment? 



INDEX 



Accumulating stations, 357 
Afterbirth, 253, 254 
Age, effect of, on rate of growth, 369 
indications of, 61 
the break-joint, 62 
teeth, 61 
Alfalfa, a caase of bloat, 277 

and corn, proportions of for fatten- 
ing, 374, 377 
experiments of Illinois Station, 
374, 377 
feeding value of, 277 
American Merino (see Merino), 191 

Tunis (see Tunis) 
Ancestral history (see Pedigree), 39 
Anus, plugged, 263 

Argentine Republic, sheep raising in, 16 
Arsenical dip, 310 
Astrakan fur, 214 
Atwood, Stephen, 190 
Auction sales of wool at shipping 

points, 415 
Australia, sheep raising in, 13 

present importance of, 14 

Bacillus necrophorous, 311 
Bakewell, Robert, 7 

method of, in improving Leicester 
breed, 150 
Barley, feeding value of, 380 
Beans, feeding value of, 381 
Bedding, for fattening sheep, 360 
Beet by-products, feeding value of, 381 
Berkshire Knots, 122 
Blackface, Highland, 168 

description, 168 

distribution, 169 

history, 168 

mutton, 169 

properties, 168 
"Blackfaces," 137 
Bloat, due to clover and alfalfa, 277 

to rape, 280 

to soybeans, 281 
treatment of, 27S 

cow's milk, 278 
in cows, formalin solution, 278 



Bloat, treatment of keeping mouth 
open, 278 
pressure on animal's sides, 278 
trocar and cannula, 278 
Bluegrass, fattening value of, 276, 387 
Bot-fly, sheep, 305 
Bovidie, family, 45 
Branding, detrimental to wool, 317 
Break-joint, 62, 452 
Breed type of sheep, 74 
and general type inseparable, 75 
constitution of, 75 
objectionable points, 75 
sex character, 75 
femininity, 78 
masculinity, 76 
Breeding, adaptability of sheep, for, 33 
of England, 34 
of Italy, 34 
importance of, in United States, 

35 
neglect of, 35 
Spanish Merinos, 34 
ancestry, value of, in, 38 
methods of, 37 
cross, 40 

in England, 42 
in United States, 41 
of Cotswold, 41 
of Hampshire, 40 
of Oxford, 41 
of Shropshire, 40 
truencss of tj'pe after, 41 
in-and-in, 40 
line, 40 

of Shropshires in England, 40 
mass, 37 
merit of, 38 
prolificacy, 32 
selection of stock, 37 
Breeding habits, 64 

climatic influence, 65 
gestation period, 65 
heat, duration of, 65 
period of, 64 
recurrence of, 65 
Iambs, number of, of one birth, 66 
461 



462 



INDEX 



Breeding qualities, of Cheviot, 148 
of Dorset Horn, 144 
of Oxfords, 135 
of Shropshires, 119 
of Suffolk, 137 
Breeding powers, determined from 
offspring, 39 
unlike in animals of same pedigree, 
39 
Breeding problems, 27 
adaptability, 33 

importance of in United States, 35 
neglect of, 35 
mutton, and wool coinbined, 33 

improvement of, 30 
prolificacy, 32 
wool, improvement of, 27 
fineness, 27 
color, 28 

qualities combined, 29 
Breeding season, 230 
ewes, condition of, 230 

influence on offspring, 230 
how to condition, 230 
extra feed, 230 
ram, condition of, 232 
on western ranges, 410 
Breeding stock, raising of, 25 
Breeds of sheep, 99 
fur-bearing, 212 
Karakul, 212 
mutton, 99 

American Tunis, 184 
Berkshire Knots, 122 
British, not widely distributed in 
United States, 168 
Corriedale, 163, 180 
Devon Long Wool, 175 
Dorset Down, 173 
Exmoor, 172 
Herdwick, 172 
Kerry Hill, 175 
Lonk, 169 
Ryeland, 173 

Scotch Blackface Highland, 168 
South Devon, 179 
Welsh Mountain, 172 
Wensleydale, 175 
Cheviot, 145 
Cotswold, 156 
Dorset Horn, 140 
Hampshires, 122 
Kent, 164 
Leicester, 150 



Breeds of sheep, mutton, Lincoln, 161 

Oxford, 132 

Romney Marsh, 164 

Shropshire, 110 

Southdown, 102 

Suffolk, 137 

on western ranges, 401 
wool, 188 

Merinos, 188 
American, 190 
Delaine, 200 

Rambouillet, 203 
Broadtail fur, 214 
Bucks, 341 

Buildings for sheep, 435 
barn, shape of, 435 
dryness, 437 
feed racks, 439 

combination, 440 

for roughage, 439 
floors, 437 

space required per animal, 438 
interior arrangement, 438 
lamb creep, 443 
lambing pens, 441 
light, 437 
location, 435 
outside equipment, 447 

dipping plant, 447 

fences and hurdles, 447 

pasture, nearness to, 435 

silos, 447 
shearing floor, 446 
troughs, feeding, 441 

watering, 445 
ventilation, 437 
warmth, 435 
wool room, 446 

Camp tenders, kind of men employed, 
404 
of California, 405 
of northwestern ranges, 405 
of western ranges, 403 
Canterburv lambs, 182 
Castration, 282, 283 
Cheviot, 145 

breeding qualities of, 148 
cross-breeding of, 148 

with Border Leicesters, 154 
description, 145 
distribution, 148 
half-breds, 148 
hardiness of, 147 



I 



INDEX 



463 



Cheviot, history, 145 
markings, 147 
mutton or lamb, 148 
origin of, 145 
properties of, 147 
skin, 147 
wool, 147 
Clover, a cause of bloat, 277 

and corn, in fattening process, 376, 

379 
feeding value of, 277 
sweet, feeding value of, 279 
Coal tar dip, 310 
Commission houses, wool marketing 

through, 414 
Concentrates for fattening, 379 
barley, 380 
commercial, 381 

beet by-products, 381 
molasses products, 381 
wheat bran, 381 
screenings, 381 
composition of, 382 
emmer, 380 
grains, 379 
kafir corn, 380 
oats, 380 

peas and beans, 380 
Constipation, in young lambs, 263 
Cooperative selhng of wool, 415 
Corn, and alfalfa, for fattening, 374, 
377 
and clover hay, 376, 379 
forms of feeding, 375 
Cornfields, value of as feeding fields, 

388 
Corn harvesting with lambs, 388 
Cornstalks, feeding value of, 390 
Corriedale, 41, 163, 180 
breeding qualities, 182 
description, 180 
distribution, 183 
history, 180 

importation into U. S., 182 
mutton, 182 
properties of, 182 
Cotswold, 124, 156 
breeding qualities, 158 
cross-breeding, 159 
description, 156 
distribution, 160 
formation of, 41 
history, 156 
markings, 158 



Cotswold, mutton, 159 

properties of, 159 

skin, 158 

transition from old to modern type, 
156 

wool, 158 
Cowpeas, feeding value of, 281 
Coyotes, depredations of, 424 
Creep, 272 

construction of, 273 
Cross-breeding, 40 

for wool and mutton combined, 33 

in England, 42 

in United States, 41 

of Cheviot, 148 

of Cotswold, 41 

of Hampshires, 40, 130 

of Karakul, 213 

of Leicesters, 153 

Border and Cheviot, 154 

of Oxford, 41 

rams on Merino ewes, 135 

of Shropshire, 40 

of Suffolk, 139 

trueness of type after, 41 

Devon Long Wool breed, 175 
Digestible nutrients, in fattening ra- 
tion, 377 
balance in, 379 
protein, 378 
in roughages, 385 
in succulent feeds, 385 
in various concentrates, 382 
Digestive tract of sheep, 57 
Dip, arsenical, 310 
coal-tar, 310 
lime-sulfur, 309 
manufactured, 310 
tobacco, 310 
Dipping, for destruction of Uce, 300 
of maggot fly, 30G 
of scab mite, 308 
of ticks, 306 
on western ranges, 419 
plant, 447 
Docking, 282 

operation for, 283 
Dogs, a menace to sheep raising, 312 
Dorset Down, 173 
Dorset Horn, 140 

breeding habits of, 64, 144 
Delaine Merino cross, 144 
description, 141 



464 



INDEX 



Dorset Horn, distribution, 144 
form, 141 
history, 140 
markings, 142 

modern, development of, 140 
old stock, 140 
properties, 143 
size, 141 

skin, 142 ^ , 

standard of excellence for breed, 

142 
wool, 141 
Drenches, 300 

coal-tar creosote, 301 
copper sulfate, 301 
gasoline, 301 
how to give, 302 
when to give, 303 
Dry lot, 355 

for nodule disease, 304 
for prevention of stomach worms, 
303 

Ellman, John, 102 

Southdowns improved by, 102 
Embargo Act of 1807, influence of, 9 
Emmer, feeding value of, 380 
England, cross-breeding in, 42 
the center of mutton improvement, 

32 
the home of mutton breeds, 8 
sheep of, adaptability of, 34 
sheep raising in, 6 

events affecting, 6 

Bakewell's improvement of 

breed, 7 
grant of protection to 

weavers, etc., 6 
plague of 1348, 6 
root and clover crops, in- 
troduction of, 7 
Ewes, as a market class, 341 

care of, after difficult lambmg, 254 
afterbirth, 254 
flushing, 254 
lacerations, 254 
stimulants, 254 
womb, eversion of, 254 
after parturition, 253 
feed, 253 
udder troubles (see Udder 

troubles), 255 
water, 253 



Ewes, care of before parturition, 250 
ration, 250 

shearing of udder, 250 
during lambing period (see Lamb- 
ing period), 246 
during parturition, 251 

delivery, assistance in, 251 
birth difficult, 251 
birth impossible, dismember- 
ing foetus, 252 
during pregnancy, 236 
condition, 236 

economy and efficiency in 
compounding rations, 237 
exercise, violent exertion 

harmful, 240 
feeds, harvested, 237 
corn, 237 
oats, 237 

if pasture is limited, 236 
in fields, 236 

rations of Illinois Station, 
242 
of Indiana Station, 244 
of Wisconsin Station, 243 
roots, 239 

caution in feeding, 239 
roughages, 238 
sUage, 238 
shelter, 241 

draughts and warmth, 241 
water, 240 
shelter and shade, 293 
conditioning of, for mating, 230 
avoidance of over-fat, 231 
extra feed, 230 
feeding of, after lambs are weaned, 
293 
after mating, 231 
salt and water, 293 
suckUng ewes, 267 

abrupt changes inadvisable, 

268 
concentrates, 267 
dry lot rations, 269 

from Illinois Station, 269 
from Ohio Station, 270 
quantity, 268 
roughages, 268 
variety of feed, 269 
water and salt, 269 
femininity in, 78 
masculine, discarded, 78 



INDEX 



465 



Ewes, preparing for mating, 23L 
clipping around dock, 231 
recording of service, 231 
selection of, for farm flock (see 
Farm flock), 220 
for mating, 38 
for range flocks, 228 
woolly-faced, not heavy milkers, 128 
Exmoor breed, 172 
Eyes, sore, of young lambs, 265 
due to eyelashes, 266 

Farm flock, buildings and equipment 
for, 435 
commercial, establishing the, 219 
methods of, 219 
with fuU flock, 219 
with small flock, 219 
ewes, culling out of, 224 

replacing of, after flock is estab- 
lished, 223 
early maturing stock, 224 
from heavy milking dams, 224 
of uniform age, 224 
selecting of, 220 

constitution of animal, 221 

disposition, 223 

feeding conditions and purpose, 

223 
fleece, 222 

growth and thrift, 221 
mutton form, 222 
physical condition, 223 
luuformity in breeding and size, 
220 
sources for securing, 220 
ram, selection of, 224 

activity and vigor, 227 

breed type, 228 

fleece, 228 

if ewe lambs are saved for 

breeding purposes, 228 
mutton type, 227 
pure-bred animal imperative, 

225 
size, 227 

with regard to defects of ewes, 
228 
Farm flock method of sheep raising, 22 
Fattening, 369 
age, eff'ect of, on growth, 369 

on rate and economy of gain, 

371 
30 



Fattening, concentrates, value of, 
commercial, 381 
beet by-products, 381 
molasses products, 381 
wheat bran, 381 

screenings, 381 
comparison of, 382 
corn harvesting with lambs, 388 
digestible nutrients, 377 
feeder lambs, 369 
grain, feeding value of, 379 
barley, 380 
ernmer, 380 
kafir corn, 380 
oats, 380 
protein requirement, 378 

age influence on, 379 
roots, 383 
roughages, 382 
carbonaceous, 383 
comparison of, 385 
legume hay, 382 
prairie hay, 383 
sorghum hay, 383 
straw, 383 
timothy hay, 383 
silage, 383 
corn, 384 
pea, 384 
sorghum, 384 
field feeding, 387 
cornfields, 388 
cornstalks, 390 
gain in weight from, 390 
general suggestions, 390 
grass, 387 
bluegrass, 387 
timothy, 387 
rape, 387 
feeds, concentrates, 379 
commercial, 381 
condition of, 377 
corn, 375 

corn and clover hay, 376, 379 
form to be given, 374 
grain and roughage, proportion of, 

373 
ground, 375 
protein, 378 
roots, 377 
roughages, 376 
silage, 376 



466 



INDEX 



Fattening, succulent feeds, 376 
comparison of, 385 
old ewes, 370 
rate and economy of gain, factors 

affecting, 369 
self-feeders, 372 
sex influence, 371 

wethers and ewe lambs, com- 
parison of, 372 
shearing, influence of, 372 
shifting from fields to dry lot, 390 
yearlings and wethers, 370 
scarcity of, 370 
Feed, amount consumed by lambs 
until ready for market, 285 
rations, experimental, 285 
Illinois Station, 286 
Ohio Station, 289 
condition of, for fattening sheep, 377 
field, 387 

bluegrass, 387 
corn, 388 
rape, 387 
timothy, 387 
for ewes, after mating, 231 
after parturition, 253 
for conditioning, 230 

cowpeas, 281 
in breeding season, 230 
in pregnancy, 236 
com, 237 

economy and efficiency in 
compounding rations, 237 
experimental rations, of 
Illinois Station, 242 
of Indiana Station, 244 
of Wisconsin Station, 243 
oats, 237 
roots, 239 

caution in reeding, 239 
roughages, 238 
silage, 238 
for lambs, 271 

for rams in breeding season, 232 
grinding of, 375 

corn, 375 
succulent, comparison of, 385 
racks, 439 

combination, 440 
for roughage, 439 
Feeder sheep, 349 

common grades, 354 
condition, 353 
constitution of, 352 



Feeder sheep, form in, 352, 354 
grades of, 351 
choice, 351 
quality of, 352 
selection of, 81 
weight, 353 
of fancy selected lambs, 354 
Feeding, 26 

accustoming animals to feeds, 365 
and drinking habits, 62 

change of feeding ground, 63 
short herbage preferred, 63 
water requirement, 64 
and shepherding, 37 
business of, a fattening process, 360 
bedding, 360 
equipment for, 360 
influenced by market mdications, 
358 
by general level of meat prices, 

359 
by general prosperity of people, 

359 
by price of wool, 359 
by supply of feed, 359 
of feeder sheep, 358 
of other meat animals, 359 
nature of, 358 
success of feeding operation, 
358 
sheds and lots, 362 
daily rations of Illinois Station, 

365 
even conditions, importance of, 

367 
feed supply, 360 
feeding period, length of, 364 
field, 387 

cornstalks, 390 
general suggestions for, 390 
first steps in, 365 

dry roughage, 365 
full feed, 366 
free choice system, 272 
general considerations, 355 
hand-feeding, 367 
in autumn and winter, 355 
increasing feed, 366 
of late-born lambs, 275 
"off feed," 368 
quiet surroundings, 367 
ration, manner of giving, 367 
regularity, 367 
salt, 361 



i 



INDEX 



467 



Feeding, self-feeder method, 367 
sorting out marketable animals, 3(55 
trouglis and racks, 364 
types of, 355 
dry lot, 355 

feeds, concentrates, 355 
harvested or stored, 355 
over fields, altogether, 357 
feeding period, 357 
first, then under shelter, 356 
pea hull sUage, 358 
specialized plants, 357 
under shelter, 356 
advantages of, 356 
water, 361 
Feeding plants, specialized, 358 
Feeding stations, 357 
Feeding value of alfalfa, 277 
barley, 380 
beans, 381 

beet by-products, 381 
bluegrass, 276, 387 
clover, 277 

sweet, 279 
concentrates (see Concentrates), 

379 
corn, 237, 374, 377 

kafir, 380 
cornstalks, 375, 390 
cowpeas, 281 
emmer, 380 
field feeds, 387 
grain (see Grain), 379 
hay, legmne, 382 
prairie, 383 
sorghum, 383 
timothy, 383 
molasses i)roducts, 381 
oats, 380 
rape, 387 

roots, 239, 377, 383 
roughages (see Roughages), 238, 

268, 376, 382 
rye, 279 
sUage, 383 
corn, 384 
pea, 384 
sorghum, 384 
soybeans, 280 
straw, 383 
succulent feeds, 376 
timothy, 387 
wheat bran, 381 
screenings, 381 



Femininity of ewes, 78 

mild expression indicative of, 78 
Fences and hmdles, 447 
Fleece (see Wool), 
Flocking instinct, 67 

value of, 68 
Flushing, 230, 254 

feeds for, 230 
Folding habits, 64 
Foot gland, 46 
Foothills and mountains for range 

feeding, 393 
Foot-rot, 311 

contagious, 311 

non-contagious, 311 
Free-choice system of feeding, 272 
Fur-bearing sheep, 212 

Garget, 255 

contagiousness of, 255 
effect of, on lamb, 256 
treatment of, 255 
Gestation period for ewes, 65 
Glands, foot, of goats, 47 
of sheep, 46 
functions of, 46 
skin, of sheep, 55 
suborbital face, 46 
Glossary of terms used in wool trade, 

327 
Goats, foot glands in, 47 
Goitre, sheep, 311 

Grain and roughage, proportion of, in 
fattening process, 373 
feeding value of, 379 
barley, 380 
corn, 237, 374, 377 
cmmcr, 380 
kafir corn, 380 
oats, 380 
Grass, fattening value of, 387 
bluegrass, 387 
timothy, 387 
Gregariousncss, 67 
Grub in the head, 305 

Habits of sheep, 62 

breeding (see Breeding habits), 64 
change of feeding groimd, 63 
feeding and drinking, 62 
flocking instinct, 67 

value of, 68 
folding, 64 
following the leader, 68 



468 



INDEX 



Habits of sheep, non-resistance to 
disease, 69 
recognition of young, 66 
short herbage preferred, 63 
timidity and defencelessness, 68 
water requirement, 64 
Hair of sheep, 52 
cortex, 53 
cuticle, 53 
foUicle, 52 
medulla, 53 
Hammond, Edwin, 191 

American Merino of, 191 
Hampshire breed, 122 
breeding quahties, 129 

ewes, 129 
description, 127 
distribution, 131 
early maturity, cause of, 126 
for cross-breeding, 130 
foi-m, 127 
history, 122 
old stock, 122 
work of Humphrey, 124 
lambs, 129 
making of, 40 
markings, 128 
mutton, 129 
properties of, 129 
rate of growth, 129 
skin, 129 
weight, 127 
wool, 127 
Hay, feeding value of, legume, 382 
prairie, 383 
sorghum, 383 
timothy, 383 
Heat of ewes, duration of, 65 
period of, 64 
recurrence of, 65 
Herders, of California, 405 
kind of men employed, 404 
Mexican, 404 

on northwestern ranges, 405 
on western ranges, 402 
Herding, on western ranges, 411 
Herd wick sheep, 172 
Highland sheep, black-faced, flocldng 

habit of, 67 
Horns and hoofs, 55 
Hurdling method of sheep raising, 23 

objects of, 24 
Humphrey, work of, 124 



Improvement of sheep, methods of, 37 
In-and-in breeding, 40, 50 
Indigestion, in yoimg lambs, 264 
Inheritance, differences in, with same 

pedigree, 39 
Interdigital pouch, 46 
Intestines of sheep, 58 
Instrmnents for dismembering foetus 

when dehvery is impossible, 252 
Italy, sheep of, adaptability of, 34 

Judging sheep, 82 

faults of beginners, 96 
fleece and skin, 93 
mutton breeds, 93 
wool breeds, 93 
density of, 93 
handling, 85 

correct touch, 85 
fat estimation, 96 
the back, 88 
the front, 89 
the head, 91 
the middle, 87 
the neck, 91 
the rear, 85 
the ribs, 89 
the rump, 87 
looking animal over, 82 
front view, 82 
rear view, 85 
side view, 82 
noting defects, 93 
preparation for, 82 
student's score card No. 9, 84 
teeth, 93 

Kafir corn, feeding value of, 380 
Karakul, 212 

cross-breeding, 213 

description, 212 

distribution, 213 

history, 212 

lamb fur, 214 
types of, 214 
value of, 214 

properties, 212 

wool, 212 
Kemps, 314 

Kent breed (see Romney Marsh), 164 
Kerry Hill breed, 175 
Krimmer fur, 214 



INDEX 



469 



Lamb creep, 272, 275, 443 
construction of, 273 
feeding, amount of feed consumed, 
274 
methods of, 267 
creep, 272, 275 
direct, 271 
grain, 271 
grain mixture, 271 
free choice sj^tem, 272 
indirectly, through ewe (see 
Ewes, suckhng, feeding of), 
, 267 
grass, 275 

green feed before grass season, 274 
learning to eat, 27 
salt and water, 293 
fur, 214 

Astrakan, 214 
Broadtail, 214 
Krimmcr, 214 
Persian, 214 
value of, 214 
in meat dietary, importance of, 449 
joint, 452 
troubles, 259 

disowned lamb, 259 
arousing mother instinct, 259 
one of twins, 261 
milk supply of ewe insufficient 

for twins, 263 
orphan lamb, 262 

feeding with cow's milk, 262 
foster mother, 262 
Lambing, difficulty in, 251 
care of ewe after, 254 
afterbirth, 254 
flushing, 254 
lacerations, 254 
stimulants, 254 
womb, eversion of, 254 
dismembering fa>tus by instru- 
ments, 252 
preparation for, 246 
apphances, 248 
drugs, 247 

ewe, care of, before, 250 
quarters, 246 

warmth necessary, 246 
the shepherd, 250 
supplies, 247 
on western ranges, 416 

docking and castrating, 418 
equipment required, 409 



Lambing, on western ranges, extra 
helpers during, 417 
handling, method of, 417 
labor required during, 406 
last task of, 418 
location for, 416 
percentage of lambs, 419 
protection from predatory ani- 
mals, 416 
rate of births, 417 
shelter, 416 
pens, 246, 441 
period, 246 

on western ranges, 416 
Lambs, as a market class, 340 
care of, 267 

docking and castrating, 282 

how to feed, 273 

quarters, 270 

shelter and shade (see Shelter and 

shade), 293 
Slimmer management, 291 
feeder, 369 

growth, importance of, 267 
late-born, feeding of, 275 
losses of, on western ranges, 424 
marketable at weaning time, 284 
feed consmned imtil, 285 
rations, experimental, 286 
Illinois Station, 286 
Ohio Station, 289 
number of, at one birth, 66 
slaughtering of, for special markets, 
458 
dressing the carcass, 458 
weaning of, 291 
age proper for, 291 
early, advantages of, 291 
feeding after, 292 
procedure in, 291 
separation, of ewes for breeding, 
293 
from mothers, 292 
of rams from ewes, 293 
young, ailments and diseases of, 263 
constipation, 263 
indigestion, 264 
navel ill, 266 
pinning, 263 
"plugged" anus, 263 
sore eyes, 265 

due to eyelashes, 266 
sore mouth, 266 
white scoiu's, 264 



470 



INDEX 



Lambs, young, caring for, 256 
assistance to nurse, 257 
at bij'th, 256 
disowned lamb, 259 
orphan lamb, 262 
weaklings, 258 

feeding enforced, 258 
first feeding, 258 
respiration, 258 
when chilled, 259 
with thickened tongue, 259 
Leicester sheep, 150 

comparison of, with Lincoln, 161 
cross-breeding with Merinos, 153 
distribution of, 154 
mutton, 153 
properties of, 153 
pure-bred flocks, 154 
types of, 150 
Border, 150 

Cheviot cross, 154 
description, 153 
history, 153 
English, 150 

Bakewell's improvement of, 

150 
description, 152 
history, 150 
markings, 152 
skin, 152 
wool of, 152 
Lice, sheep, 306 
Lime-sulfur dip, 309 
Lincoln sheep, 161 

comparison of, with Leicester, 

161 
cross-breeding with Merinos, 163 
description, 161 
distribution, 163 
history, 161 
markings, 162 

Merino cross of Argentine, 163 
properties, 163 
skin, 162 
wool, 161 
Line breeding, 40 

Shropshires of England, 40 
Lonk sheep, 169 

Maggot fly, 305 
Market, for wool, 327 
Market classes of sheep, 340 

breeding sheep, 340 

bucks and stags, 341 



Market classes of sheep, ewes, 341 
feeder sheep, 340, 349 
condition of, 353 
constitution of, 352 
form in, 352, 354 
grades, 351 
choice, 351 
common, 354 
weight, of fancy selected lambs, 
354 
to be considered, 353 
lambs, 340 
main classes, 340 
mutton grades, 340, 342 
common, 347 
condition, 344, 346 
dressing percentage, 349 
fancy selected, 342 
form, 342 

handling necessary to gi'ade, 

345 
intermediate, 347 
lamb, prime, 341 

fat indications on, 345 
Mexican, 344 
pelt, 343 
prime, 342 

form, 342 
quality, general, 343 
pelt, weight of, 343 
of flesh and condition, 344, 
346 
weight, 345, 347 
sub-classes, 340 
wethers, 341 
yearlings, 341 
Market lambs at weaning time, 284 
Market type of sheep, 80 
Masculinity of rams, 76 
importance of, 76 
pronounced indications of, 76 
Mass breeding, 37 

merit of, 38 
Mating, study of, 38 
Merino, American, 190 

At wood's development of, 190 
breeding qualities, 198 
description, 192 
distribution, 198 
gestation i:)eriod for, 66 
gregariousncss of, 67 
hardiness, 198 
history, 190 
importations of, 190 



INDEX 



471 



Merino, American, ''Old Black," 191 
pioneer breeders, 192 
properties, 19S 
"Sweepstakes," 191 
types of, 192 
A-type, 193 

wool of, 193 
B-type, 196 

wool of, 196 
C-type (see Merino, Delaine), 

196 
Hammond's, 191 
Blaok Top, Improved, 201 

Spanish, 201 
California French, foundation 

stock of, 205 
cross-breeding with Leicesters, 153 
Delaine, 200 
description, 201 
distribution, 201 
liistory, 200 
origin in Ohio, 201 
properties, 201 
types of, 200 

Black Top Improved, 201 

Spanish, 201 
Dickinson, 200 
for western ranges, 200 
importation to North America, 9 
introduction of, in Australia, 13 
in South Africa, 17 

types, 17 
in South America, 16 
importance of, 16 
life of, 61 

of New Zealand, 14 
of Saxony, 9 
of Spain, 3, 188 

adaptability poor, 34 
characteristics of, 5 
Estantes, 188 
Transhumantes, 188 
origin of, 188 
skin of, 51 

time of development, 59 
wool of, 56 
surface of growth, 55 
Mexican herders, 404 
Milk, ewe's and cow's, analysis of, 263 
Molasses products, feeding value of, 

381 
Mouths, sore, in young lambs, 266 
Mutton, demand for, beginning of, 33 
importance of, in meat dietary, 449 



Mutton, improvement of, 30 
changes involved in, 32 
combined with wool, 33 
England the center of, 32 
preparation of, on farm, 449 
carcass, cutting of, 455 

breast, 455 

leg, 455 

loin, 455 

rib, 458 

shoulder, 458 
slaughter, care before, 449 

method of (see Slaughter), 450 

of lambs for special markets, 
458 
dressing the carcass, 458 
Mutton breeds, 99 

characteristics of, 70 

body, 71, 72 

fore quarters, 71 

head, 70 

hind quarters, 72 

legs, 72 

neck, 70 

skin and wool, 73 
comparison with wool type, 74 
England the home of, 7 
English, skin of, 51 
environment in relation to type, 

99 
form of prime animal, 342 
gregariousness of, 67 
handling necessary to grade, 345 
life of, 61 

market grades of, 342 
common, 347 

prime, desirable weights for, 
347 
of Australia, 14 
of New Zealand, 14 
of North America, introduction 

of, 10 
of South America, 16 
origin of, 99 
quality of, 72 

flesh and condition, 344, 346 

general, 343 

pelt, weight of, 343 
Southdown, 102 

Navel ill, 266 

New Zealand, sheep population in, 
density of, 14 
sheep raising in, 14 



472 



INDEX 



Nodule disease, 303 
effects of, 304 
parasite of, 303 
life history of, 303 
North America, sheep raising in (see 
Sheep raising in North America), 9 

Oats, feeding value of, 380 

and Canadian peas, 280 

winter, 279 
Over-heating, 311 
symptoms of, 311 
treatment for, 311 
Ovis aries, species, 45 
Oxford or Oxford Down, 132 

breeding qualities, 135 
ewes, 135 
rams, 135 

description, 132 

distribution, 135 

form, 132 

history, 132 

markings, 134 

properties of, 134 

size, 132 

skin, 134 

wool, 134 

Parasites, sheep, 296 

bot-fly, 305 

Estrus ovis, 305 

Haimonchus contortus, 296 

lice, 306 

maggot fly, 305 

Melophagus ovinus, 306 

Musca vomitorium, 305 

CEsophagostomum columbianum, 
303 

of nodule disease, 303 

Psoraptes communis ovis, 307 

scab mite, 307 

stomach worm, 296 

tape-worm, 304 

Tenia expahsa, 304 

ticks, 306 

Trichocephalus sperocephalus, 306 
PartiH-ition, 253 

care of ewe after (see also Ewe, 
care of), 253 
feed, 253 
water, 253 

care of ewe before, 250 



Parturition, care of ewe during, 251 
birth, difficult, due to abnormal 
development, 251 
impossible, dismembering 
foetus, 252 
delivery, assistance in, 251 
skill in, 253 
indications of, 251 
Pastures and forage crops, 276 
alfalfa, 277 
bluegrass, 276 
clover, 277 

sweet, 279 
comparison of, 281 
cowpeas, 281 
mixed grasses, 276 
oats and Canadian peas, 280 
I)arasites, inf(\stati()n l)v, 282 
rape, 279 

caution in feeding of, 280 
fattening power of, 280 
sown in corn, 280 
rye, 279 
sheep husbandry not dependent on 

permanent grass, 282 
soybeans, 280 
timothy, 276 
winter oats, 279 
Peas, feeding value of, 381 
Pedigree, 38, 39 

in relation to breeding qualities, 39 
overestimation of, 39 
Pelts, 343 
value of, 343 
weight of, 343 
Pens, lambing, 246, 441 
Persian lamb fur, 214 
Pinning, in young lambs, 263 
Placenta, 253, 254 
Plains for range feeding, 393 
Poisonous plants, 423 
Political unrest in leading sheep 

countries of South America, 15 
Predatory animals, 312, 424 
coyotes, 313 
dogs, 312 
Pregnancy, care of ewes during (see 

Ewes during pregnancy), 236 
Prolificacy in breeding, 32 
Protein requirement for fattening, 378 
Pure-bred flock method of sheep 
raising, 25 

Racks, for sheep feeding, 364 



INDEX 



473 



Rambouillet sheep, 203 
breeding qualities, 209 
description, 206 
distribution, 210 
early records preserved, 203 
export of, to South Africa, 17 
French flocks, 203, 204 
gestation period for, 66 
importation to United States, 

204 
markings, 206 
mutton, 209 

Ohio State Fair classification, 209 
origin of, 203 
popularity of, 210 
properties, 209 
purpose in breeding, 203 
type, 206 

folded or wrinkled, 208 
smooth or plain, 208 
wool, 206 
Ram, care of, after breeding season, 
242 
on western ranges, 410 
condition of, for service, 232 
exercise, 232 
feed for, 233 
masculinity in, 75 
number of ewes served bj% 234 
influenced bv method of hand- 
ling, 235 ' 
preparation of, for mating, 234 
clipping, 234 
painting between fore-legs to 

mark owes, 234 
teaser, use of, 234 
running with flock, 232 
selection of, for farm flock (see 
Farm flock), 224 
for mating, 38 
for range flocks, 229 
Range flocks, ewes, selection of, 228 

rams, selection of, 229 
Range method of sheep raising, on 
enclosed lands, 20 
advantages of, 22 
supplemented by cultivated crops, 

20 
using herders, 20 
Ranges, western, breeding of sheep 
on, 399 
breeding season on, 410 
rams, care of during, 410 



Ranges, western, breeds for, 400 
herding qualities, 400 
Merino, 400 
mutton breeds, 401 
changes in past twenty-five 
years, 426 
added cost, 427 

charges for lands, 427 
for maintenance, 427 
investment in land, ^28 
of trailing from one range 
to another, 428 
affect, on cost of production, 
431 
on cost per head, 431 
allotments by National Forest 

service, 427 
lieneficial, 430 

cultivated crops, 430 
railway facilities, 430 
greater investment required, 

430 
in range areas, 426 
labor, better provision re- 
quired, 429 
cost of, 429 
inefficiency of, 428 
occupancy by homesteaders, 
426 
classes of sheep on, 401 
cultivated ai-eas, 395 
dipping, 419 

equipment required, for lamb- 
ing, 409 
for handling a band, 407 
summer, 407 
winter, 407 
harvested crops supplementing 

winter range, 395 
herding, 411 

lambing, docking and castrating, 
418 
hurdling, method of, 417 
last task of, 418 
location for, 416 
percentage of lambs, 419 
period of, 416 

extra helpers during, 417 
shelter during, 416 
rate of births, 417 
leasing of, cost of, 399 

from U. S. Government, 395 



474 



INDEX 



Ranges, western, management of, 402 
basis of, 402 
fall and winter, 410, 411 
herders and camp tenders, 
duties of, 402, 403 
kind of men employed, 404 
Mexican, 404 
of California, 405 
of Northwest, 405 
provisions for, 405 
labor required to handle a 
band, 402 
in shearing season, 406 
in lambing season, 406 
losses, by "strays," 423 
from coyotes, 424 
from lack of shelter, 422 
from poisonous plants, 423 
from predatory animals, 424 
from snowstorms, 421 
of young lambs, 424 
problems in, 421 
losses, 421 
selling price, 425 

shortage of feed, 424 
ranch headquarters, 406 
size of band, 402 
spring and summer, 416 
summer range, 421 

transfer to, 419 
wages per month in various 
states, 406 
nature of range, 393 
ownership of, 395 
private, 399 

railway land grants, 399 
U. S. Government, 395 
predatory animals, protection 

from, 416 
profit and loss on, 421 
shearers, 413 

carelessness of, 413 
hand, 412 

nomadic Ufe of, 413 
shearing, 411 
camps, 411 

hand and machine, 412 
number of fleeces removed per 
day, 412 
types of land utilized, 393 
foothills and mountains, 393 
plains, 393 



Ranges, western, wool, marketing of, 
414 
by auction sales, 415 
by commission houses, 414 
by contracting, 414 
by cooperative selling, 415 
expense of, 416 
Rape, a cause of bloat, 280 
caution in use of, 280 
fattening power of, 280, 387 
feeding value of, 279 
growing of, 388 
sown in corn, 280 
Rations, dry lot, for suckling ewes, 
269 
of Illinois Station, 269 
of Ohio Station, .270 
Record of service, keeping of, 231 
Roots, a sheep feed, 239 
feeding value of, 383 
in fattening process, 377 
Romney Marsh sheep, 164 
description, 164 
distribution, 166 
history, 164 
native home of, 164 
old type, 164 
properties of, 165 

breeding qualities, 166 
hardiness, 165 
mutton quahty, 166 
resistance to disease, 165 
superior as a grazing sheep, 
166 
wool, 165 
Roughage and grain, proportion of in 

fattening process, 373 
Roughages, comparison of, 385 
feeding value of, carbonaceous, 383 
for fattening, 382 
legume hay, 382 
Rye, feeding value of, 279 
Ryeland breed, 173 

Salt, feeding of, 361 

Scab, eradication of from U. S., 309 

symptoms, 308 

treatment, 308 
Scab mite, 307 

dips for destruction of, 309 
Scotch Blackface Highland sheep 

(see Blackface), 168 
Self-feeders, 367, 372 
Sex influence in fattening sheep, 37 1 



INDEX 



475 



Sex type or character, 75 
Sex weakness in rams, 76 
Seymour, Richard, 140 
Shearers, carelessness of, 413 
hand, 412 

on western ranges, 413 
Shearing, 322 

early, objections to, 323 
good, requirements for, 321 
hand shears, 321 
power machines preferable, 321 
influence of, on fattening sheep, 372 
of breeding ewes, 322 
on western ranges, 412 
places for, 323 
time for, 322 
farm flocks, 322 
range sheep, 322 
Shearing camps, 411 
Shearing flooi', 446 
Shearing machines, power, 321 
Shearing season, on western ranges, 
411 
labor required during, 406 
Sheep, a ruminant, 45 
and lamb feeding (see Feeding), 26, 

355 
breeding of, on western ranges, 399 
breeds of for range, 400 
buildings for (see Buildings), 435 
class of, on western ranges, 401 
difference of, from other Bovidu', 45 
enemies of, 68 

fattening of (see Feeding), 355 
feeder (see Marlet classes), 349 
fine-wool of Italy, 34 

adaptability poor, 34 
habits of, breeding (see Breeding 
habits), 64 
feeding and drinking, 62 

water requirement, 64 
feeding ground, change of, 63 
flocking instinct, 67 

value of, 68 
folding, 64 

following the leader, 68 
non-resistance to disease, 69 
recognition of young, 66 
short herbage preferred, 63 
increase in value of, 13 
judging of (see Judging sheep), 82 
life of a, 59 

age, indications of, 61 
break-joint, the, 62 



Sheep, teeth, 61 
old age, 59 

change of surroundings bene- 
flcial, 59 
of slow development, 61 
time of full growth, 59 
management of, on western ranges 

(see Ranges, western), 402 
market classes of (see Market 

classes), 340 
mutton, grades of (see Market 

grades), 342 
native home of, 63 
nature of, 59 

of England, adaptability of, 34 
position in zoological scheme, 45 
problems in improvement of, 27 
structure of, 45 
digestive tract, 57 
intestines, 58 
stomach, 58 
teeth, 57, 61, 62 
glands, foot, 46 

functions of, 46 
suborbital face, 46 
hair, 52 

cortex of, 53 
cuticle, 53 
follicle, 52 
medulla, 53 
hairy covering, variations in, 55 
horns and hoofs, 55 
interdigital pouch, 46 
skeleton, 47 
ribs, 48 

sternum or breast-bone, 48 
variations in effects of, 48 
vertebra?, 47 
skin, and appendages, 51 
color of, 51 
glands of, 55 
upper Up, 63 
wool, 54 

function of, 54 
irregularity of growth, 55 
variations in, 55 
summer enemies of, 296 
teeth of, at advanced age, 62 

at various ages, 61 
timidity and defencclessness of, 68 
types of, 70 
breed, 74 
and general type inseparable, 
75 



476 



INDEX 



Sheep, types of, breed, constitution, 75 
objectionable points, 75 
sex character, 75 
femininity, 78 
mascuhnity, 76 
importance of, 76 
feeder, 81 
general type, 75 
market, 80 
mutton breeds, 70 
body, 71, 72 
head, 70 

hind quarters, 72 
legs, 72 
neck, 70 
quality of, 72 
skin and wool, 73 
wethers, 81 
wool breeds, 73 

compared with mutton type, 

74 
folds and wrinkles of, 74 
unimproved, appearance of, 27 
westward movement of, 9 
wounded by dogs, 312 
treatment of, 312 
Sheep breeding, adaptability of im- 
portance in U. S., 35 
Sheep countries, important, 17 

statistics tabulated, 18 
Sheep feeding in U. S., history of, 335 
origin of, 335 

day of the large operators, 336 
farmer feeders, 338 

advantages of, over large 
operator, 338 
feeding yards, 335 
screenings-fed animals, 335 
Sheep industry (see Sheep raising) 
Sheep population, changes in centers 
of, 10 
in New Zealand, density of, 15 
Sheep raising, adaptabiUty a problem 
in, 33 
neglected, 35 
changes in centers of, 10 
combining mutton and wool, 33 
development of, in various conu- 

tries, 3 
early domestication and impor- 
tance, 3 
for breeding purposes, 25 
in Argentine Republic, 15 
in Austraha, 13 



Sheep raising, mutton breeds increas- 
ing, 14 
in Australia, present importance, 
14 
progress of, 13 
in England, 6 

and Spain, dissimilarities of, 5 
events affecting, 6 

Bakewell's improvement 

of breed, 7 
grant of protection to 

weavers, etc., 6 
plague of 1348, 6 
root and clover crops, 
introduction of, 7 
in farming regions, 13 
in New Zealand, 14 

density of sheep population, 15 
paddock or fencing system, 15 
in North America, 9 
colonial times, 9 
the Embargo Act, 8 
Merinos, importation of, 10 
mutton breeds, introduction 
of, 13 
in South Africa, 16 

conditions unfavorable, 17 
in South America, 15 
mutton breeds, 16 
present status, 16 
political revolutions a hin- 
drance to, 16 
Southdowns, 16 
in Spain, 3 
Merino, 3 
monopoly of, 4 

broken, 5 
stationary flocks, 6 
increase in value, 13 
present tjrpes of, in leading sheep 
countries, 20 
farm flock method, 22 
hurdhng method, 23 

objects of, 24 
pure-bred flock method, 25 
range method, on enclosed 
lands, 20 
advantages of, 22 
supplemented by culti- 
vated crops, 20 
using herders, 20 
prolificacy in, 32 
Sheep wagon, 407 
Shelter and shade, 293 



INDEX 



477 



Shelter and shade, for fattening sheep, 
362 
type of, 363 
for lambing, 246 
for pregnant ewes, 241 
in pasture, 275 
losses due to lack of, 423 
movable, 294 
protection from summer rains, 

295 
trees, 293 

parasites, danger of, under, 294 
Shepherd, the, 250 
Shepherding and feeding, 37 
Shropshires, 110 

breeding quahties, 119 
ewes, 119 
rams, 120 
description, 114 
development, method of, 1 10 
cooperation of breeders, 112 
cross-breeding, 111 
distribution, 121 
form and weight, 115 
formation of breed, 40 
history, 110 
horns, 118 

hne breeding in England, 40 
markings, 118 
of present daj'^, 115 
old types, 110 
prolificacy of, 119 
properties of, hardiness and feed- 
ing, 118 
mutton, 118 

recognition as a breed, 114 
skin, 118 
style, 116 

uniformity of type, 41 
wool, 116 
color of, 117 
Silage, feeding value of, 383 
corn, 384 
pea, 384 
pea hull, 358 
sorghum, 384 
for pregnant ewes, 238 
in fattening process, 376 
Silo, location of, 447 
Skeleton of sheep, 47 
ribs, 48 

sternum or breast-bone, 48 
variations in effects of, 48 
vertebra?, 47 



Skin of sheep, 51 

Skin and appendages, 52 

color of, 51 
Slaughter, care of animal before, 449 
equipment required for, 450 
method of, 450 

carcass, care of, 453 
cutting of, 455 
breast, 458 
leg, 458 
loin, 458 
ribs, 458 
shoulder, 459 
removal of pelt, 450 

of viscera, 452 
sticking, 450 
of lambs, for special markets, 458 
South Devon breed, 179 
Southdown, 102 

a preeminent mutton breed, 107 
breeding quahties, 108 

cross-breeding, 108 
description, 105 
disquahfications, 107 
distribution, regional, 109 
features, 106 
form and weight, 105 
gestation period for, 66 
hardiness and feeding qualities, 107 
history of, 102 
improvement by Ellman, 103 

by Webb, 105 
in South America, introduction of, 

15 
markings and skin, 106 
old type, 102 
properties of, 107 

societies for promotion of breed, 
109 
South Africa, sheep raising in, 16 
South America, sheep raising in, 15 
Soybeans, a cause of bloat, 281 

feeding value of, 280 
Spain, sheep raising in, 3 
the Merino, 3 
monopoly of, 4 

broken, 5 
stationary flocks, 5 
Spanish Merinos, adaptability of, 34 
Stags, 341 

Stomach of sheep, 58 
Stomach worm, 296 
eradication of, 299 
changing pasture, 299 



478 



INDEX 



Stomach worm, eradication of. 
drenches, 300 
coal-tar creosote, 301 
copper sulfate, 301 
gasoline, 301 
how to give, 302 
when to give, 303 
keeping host animals off pas- 
tures, 300 
plowing the land, 300 
examination for, 298 
harm done by, 299 
Ufe history of, 296 
eggs, 296 

larvjE, ensheathed, 297 
temperature, effect of, on, 

297 
young, 297 
mature worm, 298 
prevention of, by use of dry lot, 

303 
symptoms of, 299 
Straw, feeding value of, 383 
Strays, losses by, 424 
Student's score card No. 9, 84 
Suborbital face glands, 46 
Suffolk breed, 137 ' 
breeding quahties, 137 
description, 137 
distribution, 139 
for cross-breeding, 139 
hardiness, 139 
history, 137 
mutton quaUty, 137 
properties, 137 
Summer enemies of the flock, 296 
Supplies for lambing, 247 

Tape-worm, 304 

symptoms, 304 
Teaser, 234 
Teeth of sheep, 57 

indicators of age, 61 

of advanced age, 62 
Territory wools, 320 
Ticks, 306 
Timothy, fattening value of, 387 

feeding value of, 276 
Tobacco dip, 310 
Troughs, feeding, 364, 441 

watering, 445 
Timis, American, 184 

breeding habits of, 64 

description, 186 



Tunis, liistory, 184 
properties, 187 

wool, 187 
Twine tying,, 325 
Types of sheep (see Sheep, types of), 

325 

Udder troubles, 255 
garget, 255 
inflammation, 255 
teats, hard core in, 256 
sore, 256 
United States, cross-breeding in, 41 
sheep raising in, adaptabiii._, 
unportant, 35 

Water, for fattening sheep, 361 
Weaning, 291 

feeding lambs after, 292 
procedure in, 291 
proper age for, 291 
separation of lambs from ewes, 292 
treatment of ewes after, 293 
Webb, Jonas, 102 

Southdowns improved by, 105 
Welsh Mountain sheep, 172 
Wensleydale sheep, 175 
Wethers, 78, 341 
fattening of, 370 
feeder, scarcity of, 370 
Wheat bran, feeding value of, 381 

screenings, feeding value of, 381 
White scours, 264 
Wiltshires, 122 
Womb, eversion of, after lambing, 254 

treatment of, 254 
Wool, best types of, 223 

branding with paint detrimental to, 

317 
classifications and grades of, 318 
classes of, age influence on, 318 
carpet, 318 
clothing, 318 
combing, 318 
comparative value of, 318 
noils, 318 
cleanliness, 317 
color, 28 
condition, 316 

counts to which it will spin, 320 
cross-bred, 30 
fibers, off-colored, 314 
strength of, 315 
tests for, 315 



INDEX 



479 



Wool, fine, 27 

production of, by Romans, 28 
importance of, 28 
foreign, classes and corresponding 
counts for American grade, 320 
counts or number of hanks to 
pound, 320 
function of, 54 
grades of, 318 
importance of, 314 

in new countries, 8 
improvement of, 27 

combined with mutton, 33 
effect of newer manufacturing 
processes on, 30 
irregularity of growth, 55 
kemps in, 314 
marketing of, 327 
expense of, 416 
• from western ranges, 414 
auction sales, 415 
commission houses, 415 
contracting, 414 
cooperative selling, 415 
of American Merino, 
A-type, 193 
B-type, 196 
C-type, 196 
of American Tunis, 187 
of Australian Merino, 13 
of Cheviot, 147 
of Corriedale, 180 
of Cotswold, 158 
of Delaine Merino, 196 
of Dorset Horn, 141 
of Hampshires, 127 
of Karakul, 212 
of Leicester, 152 
of Lincoln, 161 
of Oxfords, 134 
of Rambouillet, 206 
of Romney Marsh, 165 
of Shropshires, 116 



Wool, packing, 326 

separation of grades and color, 
327 
requisites of, 314 
shearing (see Shearing), 322 
storing of, 327 
structure of, 54 

tfueness of, 314 
tabulation of grades produced from 

different breeds of sheep, 321 
territory, 320 
texture, variations in, 55 
trade names, 327 
tying, 321 

twine, 325 
uniformity, 314 

various properties of, combined, 29 
Wool breeds, 73, 188 

comparison with mutton type, 74 
Merino, American, 190 
A-type, 193 
B-type, 196 
C-type, 196 
Black Top, Spanish, 201 

Improved, 201 
Delaine, 200 
Rambouillet, 203 
skin folds and wrinkles of, 74 
Wool crop, 314 
Wool growing, Australian, 13 
improvement in, 27 
in various countries, 29 
Wool room, 446 
Wool trade, glossary of terms used in, 

327 
Wounds, caused by dogs, treatment 
of, 312 

Yearlings, 341 

fattening of, 370 

feeder, scarcity of, 370 
Young, recognition of, by ewes, 66 



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